Pacification of Ghent
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Habsburg Netherlands
The Habsburg Netherlands was a geo-political entity covering the whole of the Low Countries from 1482 to 1556/1581 and solely the Southern Netherlands from 1581 to 1794...
for the purpose of driving mutinying Spanish
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
mercenary troops from the country, and at the same time a peace treaty with the rebelling provinces Holland and Zeeland
Zeeland
Zeeland , also called Zealand in English, is the westernmost province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the south-west of the country, consists of a number of islands and a strip bordering Belgium. Its capital is Middelburg. With a population of about 380,000, its area is about...
.
Background
In 1567 king Philip II of SpainPhilip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
, the overlord of the Habsburg Netherlands, sent Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba
Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands , nicknamed "the Iron Duke" in the Low Countries because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several...
as governor general to the Netherlands with an army of Spanish mercenaries to restore order after the political upheavals of 1566 that culminated in the Iconoclastic fury of that year. He soon replaced the most important advisors of the former Regent Margaret of Parma
Margaret of Parma
Margaret, Duchess of Parma , Governor of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 and from 1578 to 1582, was the illegitimate daughter of Charles V and Johanna Maria van der Gheynst...
by summarily executing them, such as the counts of Egmont
Lamoral, Count of Egmont
Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Prince of Gavere was a general and statesman in the Habsburg Netherlands just before the start of the Eighty Years' War, whose execution helped spark the national uprising that eventually led to the independence of the Netherlands.The Count of Egmont headed one of the...
and Hoorn
Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn
Philip de Montmorency was also known as Count of Horn or Hoorne or Hoorn.-Biography:De Montmorency was born, between 1518 and 1526, possibly at the Ooidonk Castle, as the son of Jozef van Montmorency, Count of Nevele and Anna van Egmont...
, or by driving them into exile, such as William the Silent
William the Silent
William I, Prince of Orange , also widely known as William the Silent , or simply William of Orange , was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of...
, the Prince of Orange
Prince of Orange
Prince of Orange is a title of nobility, originally associated with the Principality of Orange, in what is now southern France. In French it is la Principauté d'Orange....
. Philipe de Croÿ, Duke of Aerschot
Philipe de Croÿ, Duke of Aerschot
Philipe de Croÿ, third Duke of Aarschot, Prince of Chimay, Count of Porcean , was governor-general of Flanders, and inherited the estates of the ancient and wealthy family of Croÿ...
, however, remained in his favor as leader of the royalist faction.
At first, Alba had little difficulty in repelling the feeble rebel military incursions, led by Orange. However, maintaining a large military presence put a severe strain on the royal finances, especially as Spain at the same time fought expensive wars against the Ottoman Sultan
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
and in Italy. Alba's attempts to finance these expenses by new taxes tended to also estrange previously loyal subjects from the cause of the royalists. Then, in 1572, an incursion of privateers with letters of marque from Orange (known as watergeuzen
Geuzen
Geuzen was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents, who from 1566 opposed Spanish rule in the Netherlands. The most successful group of them operated at sea, and so were called Watergeuzen...
) into Holland and Zeeland met with unexpected success. Orange was able to take over the government in these two provinces, under the guise of his old post of royal Stadtholder
Stadtholder
A Stadtholder A Stadtholder A Stadtholder (Dutch: stadhouder [], "steward" or "lieutenant", literally place holder, holding someones place, possibly a calque of German Statthalter, French lieutenant, or Middle Latin locum tenens...
, and bring them in open revolt against the government in Brussels. This brought about a formal state of war between Holland and Zeeland and the fifteen loyalist provinces.
This civil war was mostly fought with mercenary troops on both sides, in which Spanish Tercio
Tercio
The tercio was a Renaissance era military formation made up of a mixed infantry formation of about 3,000 pikemen, swordsmen and arquebusiers or musketeers in a mutually supportive formation. It was also sometimes referred to as the Spanish Square...
s played a preponderant role on the royalist side. Because of the dire state of the royalist finances, these Spanish mercenaries went often unpaid. They frequently mutinied, especially after having gained victories, and during such actions they often pillaged nearby towns. This eventually brought disaffection with the Brussels government to a boil in the summer of 1576.
The Pacification
Meanwhile, Alba had been replaced by Luis de Zúñiga y RequesensLuis de Zúñiga y Requesens
Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga also known as Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens was a Spanish politician and diplomat.-Biography:Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga was born at Molins de Rei...
as governor-general in 1573. Requesens was equally unable to prevail over the rebels. He was also in bad health and died in March, 1576. This caused a power vacuum in the Brussels government, as the difficult communications of the day prevented a speedy replacement from Madrid. Philip appointed his younger brother John of Austria governor-general, but it took Don Juan several months to take up this appointment.
Meanwhile, in Brussels the Duke of Aerschot stepped into the breach. He had already held inconclusive peace talks with his former colleague in the Raad van State (Council of State), Orange. When Spanish troops mutinied because of lack of payment, and sacked the towns of Zierikzee
Zierikzee
Zierikzee is a small city, located on the former island of Schouwen in the Dutch province of Zeeland. It is a part of the municipality of Schouwen-Duiveland, and lies about 26 km southwest of Hellevoetsluis....
and Aalst
Aalst
Aalst can refer to:Place names* Aalst, Belgium, a city and municipality in Belgium* Aalst, Buren, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland* Aalst, North Brabant, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of North-Brabant...
, the States-General of the Netherlands
States-General of the Netherlands
The States-General of the Netherlands is the bicameral legislature of the Netherlands, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The parliament meets in at the Binnenhof in The Hague. The archaic Dutch word "staten" originally related to the feudal classes in which medieval...
was immediately convened by the States of Brabant
States of Brabant
The States of Brabant were the representation of the three estates: Nobility, Clergy and Commons to the court of the Duke of Brabant. These three estates were also called the States. Supported by the economic strength of the cities Antwerp, Brussels and Leuven, the States always were an important...
and Hainaut
County of Hainaut
The County of Hainaut was a historical region in the Low Countries with its capital at Mons . In English sources it is often given the archaic spelling Hainault....
on September 8, 1576 to deal with the mutinous troops. Holland and Zeeland, as rebellious provinces, were not invited. Aerschot was now appointed by the States-General, acting in usurpation of the royal prerogatives, as head of the Council of State. This made him acting governor-general. This action was the equivalent of the comparable events in Holland and Zeeland where royal authority had equally been usurped by the rebels, pretending to act "in the name of the king".
The States General referred to ancient precedent to justify their actions. They had acted similarly after the deaths of Charles the Bold in 1477 and Philip the Handsome
Philip I of Castile
Philip I , known as Philip the Handsome or the Fair, was the first Habsburg King of Castile...
in 1506. Now they authorised the provincial States to raise troops for defense against marauding foreign (especially Spanish) mercenaries.
More importantly from a perspective of constitutional history, the States General also embarked on a program of institutional innovation. To facilitate its governance in permanent session (previously the States General only were in session for a few weeks at most) they appointed a rotating presidency. The president, from one of the provincial delegations, assisted by one or two of the pensionaries
Pensionary
A pensionary was a name given to the leading functionary and legal adviser of the principal town corporations in the Netherlands because they received a salary, or pension.-Historical development:...
, would preside over the meetings for a week at a time. This system was followed during the existence of the later Dutch Republic
Dutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
. The pensionaries started acting as an executive committee of the States General.
The first order of business was now to bring about peace with the rebel provinces, to make a common front against the marauding mutineers. Hatred of these marauders was what united rebel and loyalist alike, even if there were few other common interests. The States General therefore appointed a committee to negotiate with the Prince of Orange and the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. As the Prince's troops were already invading the province of Flanders
Flanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
, where they were made welcome in the rebellious city of Ghent
Ghent
Ghent is a city and a municipality located in the Flemish region of Belgium. It is the capital and biggest city of the East Flanders province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Lys and in the Middle Ages became one of the largest and richest cities of...
, the negotiations were held in that city.
The delegates met in the first week of October, 1576. The rebels were represented by Paulus Buys
Paulus Buys
Paulus Buys, heer van Zevenhoven and Capelle ter Vliet was Grand Pensionary of Holland between 1572 to 1584.-Life:...
, Grand Pensionary
Grand Pensionary
The Grand Pensionary was the most important Dutch official during the time of the United Provinces. In theory he was only a civil servant of the Estates of the dominant province among the Seven United Provinces: the county of Holland...
of Holland, and Philips of Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde; the States General by Elbertus Leoninus
Elbertus Leoninus
Elbertus Leoninus was the Latinized name of Elbert de Leeuw , Dutch jurist and statesman, who helped negotiate the Pacification of Ghent.-Family life:...
, a professor at Leuven University
Catholic University of Leuven
The Catholic University of Leuven, or of Louvain, was the largest, oldest and most prominent university in Belgium. The university was founded in 1425 as the University of Leuven by John IV, Duke of Brabant and approved by a Papal bull by Pope Martin V.During France's occupation of Belgium in the...
, among others. These negotiators had already met during the abortive negotiations at Breda
Breda
Breda is a municipality and a city in the southern part of the Netherlands. The name Breda derived from brede Aa and refers to the confluence of the rivers Mark and Aa. As a fortified city, the city was of strategic military and political significance...
the previous year, and therefore knew what the main stumbling blocks for reaching agreement were. They also knew that speed was of the essence, because the arrival of Don Juan was imminent, and it would be easier to reach agreement if the "royalist" side was not encumbered by his control (he was to arrive in Luxembourg in early November).
The delegates reached agreement on October 30, less than three weeks after the beginning of the negotiations. Its ratification by the States General on November 8, 1576 was undoubtedly sped up by the Sack of Antwerp
Sack of Antwerp
The sack of Antwerp or the Spanish Fury at Antwerp was an episode of the Eighty Years' War.On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios began the sack of Antwerp, leading to three days of horror among the population of the city, which was the cultural, economic and financial center of the Netherlands. The...
by Spanish mutineers of November 4, which concentrated the minds of the waverers wonderfully.
The preamble
Preamble
A preamble is an introductory and expressionary statement in a document that explains the document's purpose and underlying philosophy. When applied to the opening paragraphs of a statute, it may recite historical facts pertinent to the subject of the statute...
of the treaty held the previous Spanish government in Brussels responsible for the war. The provinces of the Netherlands were now to jointly drive out the Spaniards and their supporters "so as to restore the citizens to their rights, privileges and liberties and to their former prosperity.".
Article 1 provided for a general amnesty for acts on both sides after the troubles started in 1568.
Article 3 provided that "once the Spaniards had been driven out" the States General would return the country into the hands of the king, decide the issue of religion (which after all was an important cause of dissension), and return all military installations taken by the rebels to the authority of the king. Meanwhile (article 5), all placards by Alba for the suppression of heresy were revoked, and nobody would be punished for religious offenses pending the determination by the States General of the religious issue. Outside Holland and Zeeland no action against the Catholic religion was to be allowed (article 4). The remaining articles dealt with such issues as the free movement of goods and persons, the freeing of prisoners of war, the return of confiscated properties (especially those of the Prince of Orange), the reimbursement of the Prince for his expenses in the conduct of the war against the government troops before 1572, and the problems caused by the need to equalise the inflated currency in Holland and Zeeland with that in the other provinces.
The Pacification therefore bore the aspects of both a peace treaty (between the rebellious and the "loyal" provinces) and a project for a further defensive union. That further union was concluded on January 9, 1577 by the (first) Union of Brussels
Union of Brussels
There were two Unions of Brussels, both formed in the end of the 1570s, in the opening stages of the Eighty Years' War, the war of secession from Spanish control, which lasted from 1568 to 1648...
.
Aftermath
The problem with the Pacification was that the provinces agreed on little else than the need to confront the marauding mutineers. Once that problem had been solved by the withdrawal of the Spanish tercios to Italy in April 1577, the provinces started to diverge again.Don Juan signed the Pacification on February 12, 1577, thereby apparently giving royal assent to it. He took care, however, to stress the clauses about maintaining the Catholic religion outside the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, that the States General had attempted to "fudge."
The States General then accepted him as the legitimate governor-general, and even agreed to pay the arrears of the royal troops (the refusal of which had arguably been the cause of the problems with the mutineers). This agreement was enshrined in the Edict of 1577. However, that Edict seemed to provide for a return to the status quo ante in which the States General would not be permanently in session. Holland and Zeeland protested against this arrangement and refused to submit to it. Neither would they give up the fortresses they had occupied, as provided for in the Pacification. The relations between the new governor-general and the States General also soon deteriorated. The States General even appointed their own governor-general, the Archduke Matthias
Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor
Matthias of Austria was Holy Roman Emperor from 1612, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1608 and King of Bohemia from 1611...
.
In 1579, Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma, became royalist Governor General of the Netherlands and he immediately offered the southern Catholic nobles their original privileges back. With the Spanish army under control and their local liberties returned, the Walloon nobles and Southern provinces no longer had any reason to rebel. However, the Northern, Calvinist-controlled provinces were as unwilling to give up their religion as Philip II was to allow them to practice it. The French-speaking provinces thereupon concluded the Union of Arras, which the other provinces immediately answered with their own Union of Utrecht
Union of Utrecht
The Union of Utrecht was a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Netherlands, until then under the control of Habsburg Spain....
. The Habsburg Netherlands had split up.