John of Austria
Encyclopedia
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John of Austria (24 February 1547 — 1 October 1578), in English traditionally known as Don John of Austria, in Spanish as Don Juan de Austria and in German as Ritter Johann von Österreich, was an illegitimate son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
. He became a military leader in the service of his half-brother, Philip of Spain
and is best known for his naval victory at the Battle of Lepanto
in 1571 against the Ottoman Empire
.
, Bavaria
, he was the progeny of a liaison between Emperor Charles V and Barbara Blomberg
, a burgher's daughter and singer. Barbara was promptly married to Hieronymus Kegel, a court functionary in Brussels
, and her child became known as Jeromín. Before he turned the age of three, Jeromín was taken from his mother and put in the care of an old friend of Charles, Adrien de Bois who, in counsel with his wife, Magdalen de Ulloa, placed the child as theirs, under a Flemish court musician, Franz Massy and his Spanish wife, Ana de Medina. Given money for their travel and his keep, they took him to Spain
and settled in 1550 at Leganés, her village just outside Madrid
, where Jeromín learned Spanish and played with village boys, starting basic school with the priest at nearby Getafe
. When Jeromín turned seven, by order of the Emperor, a courtier took him from his now-widowed foster mother to the castle of Charles' majordomo, Don Luis de Quijada, which was in Villagarcía de Campos, not far from Valladolid
. Quijada's wife, Doña Magdalena, took charge of Jeromín, grooming him in her household where he was given a solid curriculum of studies including Latin and French.
When Charles abdicated his Spanish crowns in 1556, he retired from Brussels
to the remote monastery
of Yuste
in Spain. There he summoned Don Luis de Quijada to return as majordomo. In the summer of 1558, Quijada brought Magdalena and Jeromín to Yuste
, where Charles, on several occasions before his death that September, saw his son, now a youth of eleven. In a codicil
to his will, Charles had made provision for Jeromín, and expressed hope that he would enter the clergy and pursue an ecclesiastical career.
Charles' son and heir, Philip II of Spain
, returned from Brussels in 1559, aware of his father's will. Settled in Valladolid
, he summoned Quijada to bring Jeromín to a hunt. When Philip appeared, Quijada told Jeromín to dismount and make proper obeisance to his king. When Jeromín did so, Philip asked him if he knew the identity of his father. When the boy did not know, Philip embraced him and explained that they had the same father and thus were brothers. Philip, however, was strict regarding protocol. He was not addressed as "highness", a form reserved for royals and sovereign princes. In formal style he was "your excellency", the address used for a Spanish grandee, and known as Don Juan de Austria. Don John did not live in a royal palace, but maintained a separate household with Luis and Magdalena Quijada now heading his service. Philip allowed Don John the incomes allocated to him by Charles so that he might maintain the status proper to the son of an emperor and brother of a king. In public ceremonies, Don John stood, walked or rode behind the royal family, but ahead of the grandees.
Philip's new queen, Elisabeth de Valois
, was only a year older than Juan, and his ill-fated son by his first marriage, Don Carlos, only two years older. Often in the company of the lively young set was Don John's half-sister Joan, Princess of Portugal, a dozen years his senior. At the baptisms of his nieces, Elisabeth's daughters, Isabella Clara Eugenia and Catherine Michelle, it was Don John who carried the infants to the baptismal font. During and after the battle of Lepanto Don John was addressed in letters and in person as "Highness" and "Prince".
Philip, following the directions of Charles V, sent Don John to the Complutense University in the company of Don Carlos and Alessandro Farnese
, Prince of Parma
and son of Charles V's other acknowledged illegitimate child, Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Parma
(1522–86). This was meant to be a preparation for Don John his ecclesiastical career. At Alcalá
in 1562, Carlos suffered a fractured skull that had a deleterious effect on his personality. In 1565, Farnese left to be married in Brussels, where his mother was Regent
of the Low Countries. From Farnese
, Don John is said to have learned womanizing and, in time, acknowledged two illegitimate daughters, one in Spain, the other in Naples.
The former, Ana de Austria (1568 – 1610), daughter of Ana de Mendoza y Lacerda, 1st Princess of Melito and 1st Duchess of Francavilla
, became an abbess
; the latter, Juana de Austria (11 September 1573 – 7 February 1630), after years in a convent, married an Italian nobleman, Francesco Branciforte, Prince of Pietraperzia
(c. 1575 – 1622) in 1603. They had a daughter Margherita Branciforte, Princess of Butera (d. 24 January 1659, Rome), who married Federico Colonna (1601 – 25 September 1641) and had one son Antonio Colonna, Prince of Pietrapersia (1619 – 1623).
Don John allegedly sired an illegitimate son from a liaison with Zenobia Sarotosia while in Italy. The child is said to have died at childbirth (c. 1574), although it was rumoured that Philip had a hand in the unfortunate death of the child. Don John also had a son by his marriage to Hillegond van Veen. The marriage and son, Johannes, were kept secret due to Philip's warning and the politics of the time. The son stayed with his mother after Don John's death and is said to have been brought up in a monastery.
which was being besieged by the Ottoman Turks
. In 1566, he was dubbed the 245th Knight
of the Order of the Golden Fleece
. In 1568, when Don John turned 21, Philip appointed him Captain General of the Sea and commander of Spain’s Mediterranean galley fleet. Don John embarked with the fleet that spring, under the guidance of Philip's confidant, Don Luis de Requeséns, Grand Commander of Castile
, and assisted by veterans such as Don Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz
. He patrolled Spain's coast and chased Barbary corsairs
, his first foray into combat.
to spend time in prayer and meditation.
of the Moriscos (Moors who had been forced to convert to Christianity
), he volunteered to serve in any capacity. The local grandees in charge, the Marquis of Mondéjar
in Granada and the Marquis of los Vélez in Murcia
, soon fell out over matters of tactics, strategy and the place of clemency. The revolt spread and aid came from Barbary and the Turks. In April 1569 Philip appointed Don Juan commander-in-chief with Quijada as his chief adviser.
In Granada, Don John built his forces with care, learning about logistics and drill. Requeséns and Santa Cruz patrolled the coast with their galleys, limiting aid and reinforcements from Barbary. In December Don John unexpectedly took the field with a large and well-supplied army. First clearing rebels from near Granada
, he then marched east through Guadix
, where veteran troops from Italy joined him, bringing his numbers to 12,000. In late January he assaulted the rebel stronghold of Galera
. Fighting was long and hard and casualties heavy. When Galera fell, Don Juan had it levelled and salt ploughed into its soil. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery.
As the campaign continued, a musket ball grazed Don John's helmet in a skirmish, while Quijada was fatally wounded at his side. Philip sympathized with Don John's distress at the loss of Quijada, who had been like a father to him, but admonished him that generals should not be in the thick of combat, but take a safe position from which to direct the battle. His troops, however, came to see Don John as more akin to his father Charles V than his famously desk-bound brother Philip. Increasingly, they addressed Don Juan as Your Highness. The example of Galera and Don John's determined advance intimidated other Morisco villages, which soon began to surrender to Don John's superior forces. Through 1570 the revolt gradually sputtered out as its leaders quarreled, sought individual advantage, and murdered each other, while the Turks and their Barbary allies turned to the invasion of the Venetian colony of Cyprus
. To eliminate the possibility of further revolts in Granada, Philip dispersed its Moorish (Morisco) population in small groups among the Old Christian
towns and villages of the Castilian hinterland, reportedly hoping they would assimilate. Eventually, Philip III
would order the expulsion of all Moriscos
from Spain in 1609.
sent an envoy to urge Philip to join with him and Venice
in a Holy League
against the Turks. Philip agreed and negotiations opened in Rome. Among Philip's terms was the appointment of Don John as commander-in-chief of the Holy League armada. While he agreed that Cyprus should be relieved, he was also concerned to recover control of Tunis
, where Turks had overthrown the regime of Philip's client Muslim ruler. Tunis posed an immediate threat to Sicily
, one of Philip's kingdoms. Philip also had in mind the eventual conquest of Algiers
, whose corsairs posed a constant nuisance to Spain. Charles V had tried, and failed, to take it in 1541.
While Don John finished the pacification of Granada, negotiations dragged on in Rome. In the summer of 1570 an allied fleet of Venetian galleys belonging to the Venetians, Philip sailed for Cyprus, under the pope's admiral Marcantonio Colonna
. In charge of Philip's contingent was the Genoese Gian Andrea Doria, a great-nephew of the renowned Andrea Doria
. On reaching the Turkish coast in September, Colonna and the Venetians wished to press on to Cyprus while Doria argued that the season had grown too late. Then news arrived that Nicosia
, the capital of Cyprus, had fallen, and only the port of Famagusta
held out. Sickness hit the Venetian fleet and a consensus grew that it was best to return to port. The weather turned ugly and while Doria reached port in good order, the Venetians were storm-battered. Among the Christian allies, animosities became open while the Turks tightened their siege of Famagusta.
The Venetians repaired their galley fleet and readied six heavily armed galleasses. The Pope hired twelve galleys from the Grand Duke of Tuscany
. The dukes of Savoy
and Parma
also provided galleys, and Alexander Farnese sailed in one. When the League was formally signed in May, Don John was designated commander-in-chief and given his many instructions by Philip. With the instructions came a warning not to involve himself with women, which, among other instructions, were ignored by Don John. It was late July before he sailed with the Spanish squadron from Barcelona, and mid-September before the entire Holy League armada got underway from Messina. Don John was determined to fight, rallying allies, quelling their mutual suspicions and inspiring enthusiasm for what he referred to as "a holy cause".
Don John found the Turkish fleet at Lepanto
in the Gulf of Corinth
. After some debate, the Turks chose to fight, even though they had been at sea all summer and disbanded some of their people. They had the larger fleet, nearly 300 to Don John's 207 galleys and six galleasses
. On 7 October 1571, the Turkish fleet emerged into the Gulf of Patras
and took battle formation. Bringing his fleet through islets known as the Curzolaris (now mostly lost to the silting of the shoreline), Don John deployed his armada into a left wing under Venetian command, a right wing under Doria, a powerful center or main battle under himself, and a strong rear guard under the Marquis of Santa Cruz. In all four formations were galleys from each of the participating states. Two galleasses each were assigned to the wings and center. Around noon the battle commenced. The cannonade of the galleasses disrupted the Turkish formations as they pressed to the attack, and the bigger and more numerous guns of the Christian allies did devastating damage as the Turkish right and center closed to board. In the seesaw fighting on decks, the allies prevailed. Among their wounded was Miguel de Cervantes
, who would later in Don Quixote describe combat aboard galleys and call Lepanto the greatest occasion known to the centuries, past, present and future.
The Turkish remaining under Uluj Ali
, the governor general
of Algiers and their best admiral, tried to out-maneuver Doria's wing, drawing it away from the League center. When a gap appeared between Doria and the center, Uluj Ali made a quick turn about and aimed at the gap, smashing three galleys of the Knights of Malta
on Don John's right flank. Don John came around smartly while the Marquis of Santa Cruz hit Uluj Ali hard with his rear guard. Uluj Ali himself and maybe half his wing escaped. The victory was near total, with the Turkish fleet destroyed and thousands of veterans lost. The League's losses were hardly negligible, with over 7000 dead. In the evening a storm broke and the victors had to head for port, while sporadic Greek uprisings were ruthlessly suppressed by the Turks. During and after the battle of Lepanto, Don John was addressed in letters and in person with "Highness" and "Prince". This was in contradiction to the initial protocol and address by Philip. There are no records to indicate if Philip gave Don John these honours.
power, seemed to threaten Philip's Low Countries
, where the Duke of Alba had restored an uneasy order. Philip ordered Don Juan to hold his part of the Holy League armada at Palermo
, prepared to respond to events in France. Colonna took the rest into Greek waters, but achieved nothing. By the time Don Juan joined his allies in late summer, and attempted to take the Turkish citadel of Modon
on the Peloponnesus (then known as the Morea
), the Turks had too many reinforcements in place.
Don John wintered in Naples
, from which he made his first visit to his half-sister Margaret, Duchess of Parma, in l'Aquila
. They had corresponded for some time and would continue to do so. He confided in her about his love affairs, and after the birth of an illegitimate daughter had her delivered to Margaret's care. His relations with the new Viceroy of Naples, Cardinal Granvelle, an old and experienced diplomat, were not easy, but he did learn more of statecraft and the problems of northern Europe. At some point he began to entertain fantasies of liberating the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, held in prison in England
for treason, and perhaps marrying her and taking England's throne. Such an idea received encouragement in Rome. In May 1572 Pope Pius V
died; by early 1573, the Venetians, distrusting Philip II, made a separate peace with the Turks. Don John put his energy into the recovery of Tunis, which he achieved that fall, restoring a client Muslim ruler. Against advice from Madrid to raze Tunis and destroy its harbor and the great fortress of La Goletta, erected by Charles V after his conquest of Tunis in 1535, Don John chose to keep La Goletta, which had held out in 1570, and build a new fortress inside Tunis to dominate the city. He and the Marquis of Santa Cruz planned next to take Algiers
, while critics, including Granvelle, hinted that Don John dreamed of becoming King of Tunis.
By 1573, the revolt of the Low Countries had revived and Don John found himself increasingly short on funds. While his name had been bruited for the post of Governor General to succeed the Duke of Alba, it was the older Requeséns who received it. In 1574, unrest spread in Genoa
against Doria and his dominant party. Genoa was Spain's chief banker, and Don John found himself preoccupied by Genoese politics. That summer a huge Turkish armada under Uluj Ali struck Tunis and within weeks, both La Goletta and the new city citadel were lost. Don John had hurried to Palermo and assembled all available forces, but it was too little and too late.
He came to feel abandoned and though Philip had enhanced his authority over the viceroys of Naples and Sicily, who had not always proved cooperative, he returned to Madrid at the beginning of 1575 to confer in person with Philip and the Council of War. He claimed to be unaware that orders had been sent that he remain in Italy. On his return there, he once again became entangled in Genoese politics, which had become more turbulent after Philip declared bankruptcy. Wars on two fronts, the Low Countries and the Mediterranean, had overtaxed his finances, and he suspended payments on debts prior to their renegotiation. With Santa Cruz in Naples, Don John could undertake little but occasional punitive strikes against Tunisian corsair lairs with his reduced fleet.
While grievances in the Low Countries were many, at the heart of the revolt was religion, Calvinism
on the rebel side, Roman Catholicism on Philip's. Don John was a convinced Catholic, had crusaded for the Cross against the Muslim Turks and regarded Protestants simply as heretics. But some, particularly in the Low Countries, argued that limited toleration might be the only feasible solution for the revolt. Of the historic seventeen provinces, Holland and Zeeland
were largely in rebel control. The rebels made William, Prince of Orange
their leader. After Requeséns's death, Philip's army of Flanders
, its pay in arrears, mutinied and began to maraud for loot and stores in the provinces not under rebel control. The States General
of the Low Countries assembled at Ghent
while local authorities raised troops for self-defense. Delegates from the rebel provinces met with their fellows to find grounds for a common cause. In early November, mutineers sacked the city of Antwerp in what came to be called "the Spanish Fury
". At Ghent the delegates signed a Pacification which granted limited tolerance and authorized the raising of an army to deal with Philip's mutinous troops, whom they demanded be removed.
Don John got the news of the sack in Luxembourg
soon after his arrival, and learned that his acceptance as Governor General depended upon his acceding to the Pacification of Ghent
. Don Juan negotiated from Luxembourg, separate and loyal. He knew that removing the army would deprive him of the means to invade England, so he suggested that if the troops must go, it would be best to send them by sea and asked the States General to provide shipping.
The States General demurred and insisted they depart overland. They eventually did, marching south loaded with their plunder. With the army departing, the matter of toleration became the chief sticking point, with rebel demands that the Calvinist faith be practiced openly in the rebel provinces and be tolerated in the others, according to local initiative. These were terms neither Philip nor he would accept, but as Don Juan had no means of using force, he could only temporize. He issued a Perpetual Edict accepting the Pacification, but, confident that Catholics still remained the majority in the Low Countries, stipulated that panels of theologians hammer out the matter of toleration, with all to abide by their decisions.
As most were tired of wrangling and bloodshed, the States General accepted Don John as Governor General. In May 1577, he made his Joyous Entry
into Brussels
, promising to respect its historic privileges, which by extension had become the privileges of the seventeen provinces. As he assumed his office, he had to deal with the problem of his widowed mother in Ghent who scandalized her neighbors by her conduct. She had had two sons by Kegel, of whom one drowned and the other served in the royal army. At times she disowned Don John, despite receiving a government pension on his behalf. He eventually persuaded her to journey to Italy and meet Margaret of Parma. Her ship took her instead to Spain, where she was eventually settled on Escobedo's property near Santander and lived till 1598.
Don John agreed to meet with the rebel leader, the Prince of Orange, but the meeting never took place. Reports came from reliable sources that militant Protestants aimed to assassinate him. He took them seriously and in July used the visit of Marguerite de Valois
, Queen of Navarre
, to Spa
as an excuse to meet her near Namur
. There were stories that on his dash through France they had a secret tryst in Paris. After she resumed her journey, Don John and his selected companions seized the citadel of Namur in violation of the Perpetual Edict. He sent Escobedo to Spain to explain to Philip the impossibility of gaining an acceptable peace and calling for the return of the army. The States General declared war on Don John. Don John, Farnese and the army had routed the States General's army at Gembloux
that January. On the news of Escobedo's murder Don Juan was perplexed, and knew not whom to believe. With the murder Don John did not see any future in his wishes to become a monarch in his own right. He is said to have lost motivation and trust in Philip his intentions. During his stay in present day Belgium he met Hillegond van Veen, daughter of Cornelis Jansz van Veen, Chief magistrate of Leyden and descendant of the Duke of Brabant.
Don John fathered a son, Johannes, with Hillegond van Veen. Tired and increasingly ill, he campaigned through the summer with mixed success, but failed in his attempt to take Brussels, after receiving a setback in the Battle of Rijmenam
on 2 August 1578. He did win more and more of the Catholic nobles and towns to the royal cause. As ever money was a problem, and he felt his life was being doled out in bits and pieces, and complained to friends of the endless rainy weather. He married Hillegond quietly without obtaining approval from Philip. In September he pulled the army into camp near Namur to regroup.
). His army gave him a funeral due a hero. He had appointed Farnese his successor as Governor General, which Philip confirmed.
His body was dissected, returned to Spain, reassembled and placed by Philip to rest in the unfinished crypt of the Escorial, not far from their father. In time the body had its own niche and a 19th century marble effigy. Philip, reviewing Don John's papers, found no evidence of disloyalty and put Pérez under arrest.
Don John of Austria's life inspired the 1835 play Don Juan d'Autriche by Casimir Delavigne
, which served in turn as a source for two operas, Don John of Austria
by Isaac Nathan
in 1847 and Don Giovanni d'Austria by Filippo Marchetti
in 1879. Lepanto remains his great triumph. G. K. Chesterton
in 1911 published a poem, Lepanto, in which he dubbed Don Juan "the last knight of Europe".
In 1956, Louis de Wohl
published The Last Crusader: A Novel about Don Juan of Austria, whose ambitions, above all for the Queen of Scots, tend to obscure his talent for statecraft and ability to lead. Frustrated by the religious factiousness in the Low Countries, he began the policies that Farnese would follow in keeping the ten southern provinces, comprising present-day Belgium
, Luxembourg
and much of the French Netherlands, Roman Catholic and loyal to Philip, and limiting the revolt to the northern seven heavily Protestant areas which eventually became the Dutch Republic
.
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John of Austria (24 February 1547 — 1 October 1578), in English traditionally known as Don John of Austria, in Spanish as Don Juan de Austria and in German as Ritter Johann von Österreich, was an illegitimate son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
. He became a military leader in the service of his half-brother, Philip of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
and is best known for his naval victory at the Battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece...
in 1571 against the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
.
Childhood and youth
Born in RegensburgRegensburg
Regensburg is a city in Bavaria, Germany, located at the confluence of the Danube and Regen rivers, at the northernmost bend in the Danube. To the east lies the Bavarian Forest. Regensburg is the capital of the Bavarian administrative region Upper Palatinate...
, Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
, he was the progeny of a liaison between Emperor Charles V and Barbara Blomberg
Barbara Blomberg
Barbara Blomberg was the mother of Don John of Austria.Blomberg was born in Regensburg, Germany, the eldest daughter of Wolfgang Plumberger or Blomberg, a burgher, and of his wife Sibilla Lohman. A singer, in 1546 she was for a short time the mistress of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was...
, a burgher's daughter and singer. Barbara was promptly married to Hieronymus Kegel, a court functionary in Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
, and her child became known as Jeromín. Before he turned the age of three, Jeromín was taken from his mother and put in the care of an old friend of Charles, Adrien de Bois who, in counsel with his wife, Magdalen de Ulloa, placed the child as theirs, under a Flemish court musician, Franz Massy and his Spanish wife, Ana de Medina. Given money for their travel and his keep, they took him to Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and settled in 1550 at Leganés, her village just outside Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
, where Jeromín learned Spanish and played with village boys, starting basic school with the priest at nearby Getafe
Getafe
Getafe is a city in the southern zone of the Madrid metropolitan area, Spain, and one of the most populated and industrialized cities in the municipality. The city is home to one of the oldest Spanish military air bases, as well as the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid...
. When Jeromín turned seven, by order of the Emperor, a courtier took him from his now-widowed foster mother to the castle of Charles' majordomo, Don Luis de Quijada, which was in Villagarcía de Campos, not far from Valladolid
Valladolid
Valladolid is a historic city and municipality in north-central Spain, situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within three wine-making regions: Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Cigales...
. Quijada's wife, Doña Magdalena, took charge of Jeromín, grooming him in her household where he was given a solid curriculum of studies including Latin and French.
When Charles abdicated his Spanish crowns in 1556, he retired from Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
to the remote monastery
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
of Yuste
Yuste
Yuste Monastery is in the small village now called Cuacos de Yuste in the province of Cáceres in the autonomous community of Extremadura, Spain...
in Spain. There he summoned Don Luis de Quijada to return as majordomo. In the summer of 1558, Quijada brought Magdalena and Jeromín to Yuste
Yuste
Yuste Monastery is in the small village now called Cuacos de Yuste in the province of Cáceres in the autonomous community of Extremadura, Spain...
, where Charles, on several occasions before his death that September, saw his son, now a youth of eleven. In a codicil
Codicil (will)
A codicil is a document that amends, rather than replaces, a previously executed will. Amendments made by a codicil may add or revoke small provisions , or may completely change the majority, or all, of the gifts under the will...
to his will, Charles had made provision for Jeromín, and expressed hope that he would enter the clergy and pursue an ecclesiastical career.
Charles' son and heir, Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
, returned from Brussels in 1559, aware of his father's will. Settled in Valladolid
Valladolid
Valladolid is a historic city and municipality in north-central Spain, situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within three wine-making regions: Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Cigales...
, he summoned Quijada to bring Jeromín to a hunt. When Philip appeared, Quijada told Jeromín to dismount and make proper obeisance to his king. When Jeromín did so, Philip asked him if he knew the identity of his father. When the boy did not know, Philip embraced him and explained that they had the same father and thus were brothers. Philip, however, was strict regarding protocol. He was not addressed as "highness", a form reserved for royals and sovereign princes. In formal style he was "your excellency", the address used for a Spanish grandee, and known as Don Juan de Austria. Don John did not live in a royal palace, but maintained a separate household with Luis and Magdalena Quijada now heading his service. Philip allowed Don John the incomes allocated to him by Charles so that he might maintain the status proper to the son of an emperor and brother of a king. In public ceremonies, Don John stood, walked or rode behind the royal family, but ahead of the grandees.
Philip's new queen, Elisabeth de Valois
Elisabeth of Valois
Elisabeth of Valois was the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici.-Early life:She was born in the Château de Fontainebleau...
, was only a year older than Juan, and his ill-fated son by his first marriage, Don Carlos, only two years older. Often in the company of the lively young set was Don John's half-sister Joan, Princess of Portugal, a dozen years his senior. At the baptisms of his nieces, Elisabeth's daughters, Isabella Clara Eugenia and Catherine Michelle, it was Don John who carried the infants to the baptismal font. During and after the battle of Lepanto Don John was addressed in letters and in person as "Highness" and "Prince".
Philip, following the directions of Charles V, sent Don John to the Complutense University in the company of Don Carlos and Alessandro Farnese
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
Alexander Farnese was Duke of Parma and Piacenza from 1586 to 1592, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592.-Biography:...
, Prince of Parma
Parma
Parma is a city in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna famous for its ham, its cheese, its architecture and the fine countryside around it. This is the home of the University of Parma, one of the oldest universities in the world....
and son of Charles V's other acknowledged illegitimate child, Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Parma
Margaret of Parma
Margaret, Duchess of Parma , Governor of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 and from 1578 to 1582, was the illegitimate daughter of Charles V and Johanna Maria van der Gheynst...
(1522–86). This was meant to be a preparation for Don John his ecclesiastical career. At Alcalá
Alcalá
Alcalá is a Spanish placename originally from Arabic al-qal'a "القلعة", "the citadel or fortification", and may refer to:Places:*Alcala, Cagayan, a municipality in the Philippines*Alcala, Pangasinan, a municipality in the Philippines...
in 1562, Carlos suffered a fractured skull that had a deleterious effect on his personality. In 1565, Farnese left to be married in Brussels, where his mother was Regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
of the Low Countries. From Farnese
Farnese
The Farnese family was an influential family in Renaissance Italy. Its most important members included Pope Paul III and Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, and the titles of Duke of Parma and Piacenza and of Castro were held by various members of the family....
, Don John is said to have learned womanizing and, in time, acknowledged two illegitimate daughters, one in Spain, the other in Naples.
The former, Ana de Austria (1568 – 1610), daughter of Ana de Mendoza y Lacerda, 1st Princess of Melito and 1st Duchess of Francavilla
Francavilla
Francavilla can refer to:People*Pietro FrancavillaPlaces*Francavilla Angitola*Francavilla Fontana*Francavilla Bisio*Francavilla di Sicilia*Francavilla Marittima*Francavilla d'Ete*Francavilla in SinniOther*A.S.D. Francavilla Calcio...
, became an abbess
Abbess
An abbess is the female superior, or mother superior, of a community of nuns, often an abbey....
; the latter, Juana de Austria (11 September 1573 – 7 February 1630), after years in a convent, married an Italian nobleman, Francesco Branciforte, Prince of Pietraperzia
Pietraperzia
Pietraperzia is a comune in the province of Enna, in region of Sicily in southern Italy....
(c. 1575 – 1622) in 1603. They had a daughter Margherita Branciforte, Princess of Butera (d. 24 January 1659, Rome), who married Federico Colonna (1601 – 25 September 1641) and had one son Antonio Colonna, Prince of Pietrapersia (1619 – 1623).
Don John allegedly sired an illegitimate son from a liaison with Zenobia Sarotosia while in Italy. The child is said to have died at childbirth (c. 1574), although it was rumoured that Philip had a hand in the unfortunate death of the child. Don John also had a son by his marriage to Hillegond van Veen. The marriage and son, Johannes, were kept secret due to Philip's warning and the politics of the time. The son stayed with his mother after Don John's death and is said to have been brought up in a monastery.
Women and Children
The following women are confirmed to have had a relationship with Don John. Only Hillegond van Veen was legally married to Don John. The marriage took place shortly before his death.- María de Mendoza - María Ana de Austria (1568 – 1629)
- Anne of Toledo - no known children.
- Zenobia Sarotosia - male child died at young age (c. 1574)
- Diana Falangola - Juana de Austria (11 September 1573 – 7 February 1630)
- Hillegond van Veen - Johannes van Veen (1577/78 – 16??)
Mediterranean naval command
Don John did not fulfill his father's and brother's hopes of joining the clergy as a military career proved more to his liking. In 1565, the 18-year-old left for Barcelona to join the armada for the relief of MaltaMalta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
which was being besieged by the Ottoman Turks
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı , from the house of Osman I The Ottoman...
. In 1566, he was dubbed the 245th Knight
Knight
A knight was a member of a class of lower nobility in the High Middle Ages.By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior....
of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Order of the Golden Fleece
The Order of the Golden Fleece is an order of chivalry founded in Bruges by Philip III, Duke of Burgundy in 1430, to celebrate his marriage to the Portuguese princess Infanta Isabella of Portugal, daughter of King John I of Portugal. It evolved as one of the most prestigious orders in Europe...
. In 1568, when Don John turned 21, Philip appointed him Captain General of the Sea and commander of Spain’s Mediterranean galley fleet. Don John embarked with the fleet that spring, under the guidance of Philip's confidant, Don Luis de Requeséns, Grand Commander of Castile
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
, and assisted by veterans such as Don Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz
Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz
Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz de Mudela , was a Spanish admiral.-Biography:Álvaro de Bazán was born in Granada....
. He patrolled Spain's coast and chased Barbary corsairs
Barbary corsairs
The Barbary Corsairs, sometimes called Ottoman Corsairs or Barbary Pirates, were pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Tunis, Tripoli and Algiers. This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, a term derived from the name of its Berber...
, his first foray into combat.
The Don Carlos affair
Before Don Juan's embarkment, the matter of Don Carlos had come to a head. The prince's behaviour was such that Philip was almost alone in believing he might yet be worthy of the throne. The prince's confessor confided that the prince admitted a desire to kill his father, which alarmed the king. Don Carlos thought to flee court, with the idea that he might bring peace to the Low Countries where rebellion against Philip's rule brewed. He sought the aid of Don Juan, who informed Philip: Don Carlos was subsequently put under arrest. During the summer of 1568, Don Juan was distressed to learn of Don Carlos' death and devastated when, on coming ashore at the end of the campaigning season, he learned of the death of the Queen. While he joined Philip at prayer by the Queen's bier, he seems to have had a falling out with the King over his place in the funeral. Later, he withdrew to a monastery near ValladolidValladolid
Valladolid is a historic city and municipality in north-central Spain, situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within three wine-making regions: Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Cigales...
to spend time in prayer and meditation.
Morisco Revolt in Granada
When news reached him at Christmastide of the revolt in GranadaGranada
Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of three rivers, the Beiro, the Darro and the Genil. It sits at an elevation of 738 metres above sea...
of the Moriscos (Moors who had been forced to convert to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
), he volunteered to serve in any capacity. The local grandees in charge, the Marquis of Mondéjar
Mondéjar
Mondéjar is a Spanish Denominación de Origen for wines located in the southeast corner of the province of Guadalajara , around the town of Mondéjar...
in Granada and the Marquis of los Vélez in Murcia
Murcia
-History:It is widely believed that Murcia's name is derived from the Latin words of Myrtea or Murtea, meaning land of Myrtle , although it may also be a derivation of the word Murtia, which would mean Murtius Village...
, soon fell out over matters of tactics, strategy and the place of clemency. The revolt spread and aid came from Barbary and the Turks. In April 1569 Philip appointed Don Juan commander-in-chief with Quijada as his chief adviser.
In Granada, Don John built his forces with care, learning about logistics and drill. Requeséns and Santa Cruz patrolled the coast with their galleys, limiting aid and reinforcements from Barbary. In December Don John unexpectedly took the field with a large and well-supplied army. First clearing rebels from near Granada
Granada
Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of three rivers, the Beiro, the Darro and the Genil. It sits at an elevation of 738 metres above sea...
, he then marched east through Guadix
Guadix
Guadix, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the left bank of the river Guadix, a sub-tributary of the Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway...
, where veteran troops from Italy joined him, bringing his numbers to 12,000. In late January he assaulted the rebel stronghold of Galera
Galera, Granada
Galera is a municipality in the comarca of Huéscar, province of Granada, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain, roughly from the provincial capital, Granada.- Demographics :...
. Fighting was long and hard and casualties heavy. When Galera fell, Don Juan had it levelled and salt ploughed into its soil. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery.
As the campaign continued, a musket ball grazed Don John's helmet in a skirmish, while Quijada was fatally wounded at his side. Philip sympathized with Don John's distress at the loss of Quijada, who had been like a father to him, but admonished him that generals should not be in the thick of combat, but take a safe position from which to direct the battle. His troops, however, came to see Don John as more akin to his father Charles V than his famously desk-bound brother Philip. Increasingly, they addressed Don Juan as Your Highness. The example of Galera and Don John's determined advance intimidated other Morisco villages, which soon began to surrender to Don John's superior forces. Through 1570 the revolt gradually sputtered out as its leaders quarreled, sought individual advantage, and murdered each other, while the Turks and their Barbary allies turned to the invasion of the Venetian colony of Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
. To eliminate the possibility of further revolts in Granada, Philip dispersed its Moorish (Morisco) population in small groups among the Old Christian
Old Christian
Old Christian was a social and law-effective category used in the Iberian Peninsula from the late 15th and early 16th century onwards, to distinguish Portuguese and Spanish people attested as having cleanliness of blood from the populations categorized as New Christian, mainly persons of partial...
towns and villages of the Castilian hinterland, reportedly hoping they would assimilate. Eventually, Philip III
Philip III of Spain
Philip III , also known as Philip the Pious, was the King of Spain and King of Portugal and the Algarves, where he ruled as Philip II , from 1598 until his death...
would order the expulsion of all Moriscos
Expulsion of the Moriscos
On April 9, 1609, King Philip III of Spain decreed the Expulsion of the Moriscos . The Moriscos were the descendants of the Muslim population that converted to Christianity under threat of exile from Ferdinand and Isabella in 1502...
from Spain in 1609.
The War of Cyprus and Battle of Lepanto
The War of Cyprus became the focus of Spain’s attention after Pope Pius VPope Pius V
Pope Saint Pius V , born Antonio Ghislieri , was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman liturgy within the Latin Church...
sent an envoy to urge Philip to join with him and Venice
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
in a Holy League
Holy League
Holy League may refer to:* Holy League , AKA "League of Venice", alliance of several opponents of French hegemony in Italy, arranged by Pope Alexander VI...
against the Turks. Philip agreed and negotiations opened in Rome. Among Philip's terms was the appointment of Don John as commander-in-chief of the Holy League armada. While he agreed that Cyprus should be relieved, he was also concerned to recover control of Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
, where Turks had overthrown the regime of Philip's client Muslim ruler. Tunis posed an immediate threat to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, one of Philip's kingdoms. Philip also had in mind the eventual conquest of Algiers
Algiers
' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000...
, whose corsairs posed a constant nuisance to Spain. Charles V had tried, and failed, to take it in 1541.
While Don John finished the pacification of Granada, negotiations dragged on in Rome. In the summer of 1570 an allied fleet of Venetian galleys belonging to the Venetians, Philip sailed for Cyprus, under the pope's admiral Marcantonio Colonna
Marcantonio Colonna
Marcantonio II Colonna , Duke and Prince of Paliano, was an Italian general and admiral.-Biography:...
. In charge of Philip's contingent was the Genoese Gian Andrea Doria, a great-nephew of the renowned Andrea Doria
Andrea Doria
Andrea Doria was an Italian condottiere and admiral from Genoa.-Early life:Doria was born at Oneglia from the ancient Genoese family, the Doria di Oneglia branch of the old Doria, de Oria or de Auria family. His parents were related: Ceva Doria, co-lord of Oneglia, and Caracosa Doria, of the...
. On reaching the Turkish coast in September, Colonna and the Venetians wished to press on to Cyprus while Doria argued that the season had grown too late. Then news arrived that Nicosia
Nicosia
Nicosia from , known locally as Lefkosia , is the capital and largest city in Cyprus, as well as its main business center. Nicosia is the only divided capital in the world, with the southern and the northern portions divided by a Green Line...
, the capital of Cyprus, had fallen, and only the port of Famagusta
Famagusta
Famagusta is a city on the east coast of Cyprus and is capital of the Famagusta District. It is located east of Nicosia, and possesses the deepest harbour of the island.-Name:...
held out. Sickness hit the Venetian fleet and a consensus grew that it was best to return to port. The weather turned ugly and while Doria reached port in good order, the Venetians were storm-battered. Among the Christian allies, animosities became open while the Turks tightened their siege of Famagusta.
The Venetians repaired their galley fleet and readied six heavily armed galleasses. The Pope hired twelve galleys from the Grand Duke of Tuscany
Tuscany
Tuscany is a region in Italy. It has an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.75 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence ....
. The dukes of Savoy
Savoy
Savoy is a region of France. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps situated between Lake Geneva in the north and Monaco and the Mediterranean coast in the south....
and Parma
Parma
Parma is a city in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna famous for its ham, its cheese, its architecture and the fine countryside around it. This is the home of the University of Parma, one of the oldest universities in the world....
also provided galleys, and Alexander Farnese sailed in one. When the League was formally signed in May, Don John was designated commander-in-chief and given his many instructions by Philip. With the instructions came a warning not to involve himself with women, which, among other instructions, were ignored by Don John. It was late July before he sailed with the Spanish squadron from Barcelona, and mid-September before the entire Holy League armada got underway from Messina. Don John was determined to fight, rallying allies, quelling their mutual suspicions and inspiring enthusiasm for what he referred to as "a holy cause".
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece...
in the Gulf of Corinth
Gulf of Corinth
The Gulf of Corinth or the Corinthian Gulf is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece...
. After some debate, the Turks chose to fight, even though they had been at sea all summer and disbanded some of their people. They had the larger fleet, nearly 300 to Don John's 207 galleys and six galleasses
Galleasses
A galley is a type of ship propelled by rowers that originated in the Mediterranean region and was used for warfare, trade and piracy from the first millennium BC. Galleys dominated naval warfare in the Mediterranean Sea from the 8th century BC until development of advanced sailing warships in the...
. On 7 October 1571, the Turkish fleet emerged into the Gulf of Patras
Gulf of Patras
The Gulf of Patras is a branch of the Ionian Sea. On the east, it is closed by the Strait of Rion between capes Rio, Greece and Antirrio, near the Rio-Antirio bridge. On the west, it is bounded by a line from Oxeia island to Cape Araxos...
and took battle formation. Bringing his fleet through islets known as the Curzolaris (now mostly lost to the silting of the shoreline), Don John deployed his armada into a left wing under Venetian command, a right wing under Doria, a powerful center or main battle under himself, and a strong rear guard under the Marquis of Santa Cruz. In all four formations were galleys from each of the participating states. Two galleasses each were assigned to the wings and center. Around noon the battle commenced. The cannonade of the galleasses disrupted the Turkish formations as they pressed to the attack, and the bigger and more numerous guns of the Christian allies did devastating damage as the Turkish right and center closed to board. In the seesaw fighting on decks, the allies prevailed. Among their wounded was Miguel de Cervantes
Miguel de Cervantes
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was a Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright. His magnum opus, Don Quixote, considered the first modern novel, is a classic of Western literature, and is regarded amongst the best works of fiction ever written...
, who would later in Don Quixote describe combat aboard galleys and call Lepanto the greatest occasion known to the centuries, past, present and future.
The Turkish remaining under Uluj Ali
Uluj Ali
Uluj Ali was an Italian by birth who converted to Islam, became a pirate, and later became an Ottoman admiral and Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the 16th century.He was also known by several other names in...
, the governor general
Beylerbey
Beylerbey is the Ottoman and Safavid title used for the highest rank in the hierarchy of provincial administrators It is in western terms a Governor-general, with authority...
of Algiers and their best admiral, tried to out-maneuver Doria's wing, drawing it away from the League center. When a gap appeared between Doria and the center, Uluj Ali made a quick turn about and aimed at the gap, smashing three galleys of the Knights of Malta
Knights Hospitaller
The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta , also known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , Order of Malta or Knights of Malta, is a Roman Catholic lay religious order, traditionally of military, chivalrous, noble nature. It is the world's...
on Don John's right flank. Don John came around smartly while the Marquis of Santa Cruz hit Uluj Ali hard with his rear guard. Uluj Ali himself and maybe half his wing escaped. The victory was near total, with the Turkish fleet destroyed and thousands of veterans lost. The League's losses were hardly negligible, with over 7000 dead. In the evening a storm broke and the victors had to head for port, while sporadic Greek uprisings were ruthlessly suppressed by the Turks. During and after the battle of Lepanto, Don John was addressed in letters and in person with "Highness" and "Prince". This was in contradiction to the initial protocol and address by Philip. There are no records to indicate if Philip gave Don John these honours.
The Mediterranean after Lepanto
All looked forward to the campaign of 1572, but events in France, with the growth of Protestant HuguenotHuguenot
The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the 17th century, people who formerly would have been called Huguenots have instead simply been called French Protestants, a title suggested by their German co-religionists, the...
power, seemed to threaten Philip's Low Countries
Low Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
, where the Duke of Alba had restored an uneasy order. Philip ordered Don Juan to hold his part of the Holy League armada at Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
, prepared to respond to events in France. Colonna took the rest into Greek waters, but achieved nothing. By the time Don Juan joined his allies in late summer, and attempted to take the Turkish citadel of Modon
MODON
frame|Established : 2001 Type : [[Public]]Category : [[Industrial district|Industrial cities]]Head Office : [[Riyadh]]Country : [[Saudi Arabia]]Website :...
on the Peloponnesus (then known as the Morea
Morea
The Morea was the name of the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. It also referred to a Byzantine province in the region, known as the Despotate of Morea.-Origins of the name:...
), the Turks had too many reinforcements in place.
Don John wintered in Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, from which he made his first visit to his half-sister Margaret, Duchess of Parma, in l'Aquila
L'Aquila
L'Aquila is a city and comune in central Italy, both the capital city of the Abruzzo region and of the Province of L'Aquila. , it has a population of 73,150 inhabitants, but has a daily presence in the territory of 100,000 people for study, tertiary activities, jobs and tourism...
. They had corresponded for some time and would continue to do so. He confided in her about his love affairs, and after the birth of an illegitimate daughter had her delivered to Margaret's care. His relations with the new Viceroy of Naples, Cardinal Granvelle, an old and experienced diplomat, were not easy, but he did learn more of statecraft and the problems of northern Europe. At some point he began to entertain fantasies of liberating the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, held in prison in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
for treason, and perhaps marrying her and taking England's throne. Such an idea received encouragement in Rome. In May 1572 Pope Pius V
Pope Pius V
Pope Saint Pius V , born Antonio Ghislieri , was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman liturgy within the Latin Church...
died; by early 1573, the Venetians, distrusting Philip II, made a separate peace with the Turks. Don John put his energy into the recovery of Tunis, which he achieved that fall, restoring a client Muslim ruler. Against advice from Madrid to raze Tunis and destroy its harbor and the great fortress of La Goletta, erected by Charles V after his conquest of Tunis in 1535, Don John chose to keep La Goletta, which had held out in 1570, and build a new fortress inside Tunis to dominate the city. He and the Marquis of Santa Cruz planned next to take Algiers
Algiers
' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000...
, while critics, including Granvelle, hinted that Don John dreamed of becoming King of Tunis.
By 1573, the revolt of the Low Countries had revived and Don John found himself increasingly short on funds. While his name had been bruited for the post of Governor General to succeed the Duke of Alba, it was the older Requeséns who received it. In 1574, unrest spread in Genoa
Genoa
Genoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
against Doria and his dominant party. Genoa was Spain's chief banker, and Don John found himself preoccupied by Genoese politics. That summer a huge Turkish armada under Uluj Ali struck Tunis and within weeks, both La Goletta and the new city citadel were lost. Don John had hurried to Palermo and assembled all available forces, but it was too little and too late.
He came to feel abandoned and though Philip had enhanced his authority over the viceroys of Naples and Sicily, who had not always proved cooperative, he returned to Madrid at the beginning of 1575 to confer in person with Philip and the Council of War. He claimed to be unaware that orders had been sent that he remain in Italy. On his return there, he once again became entangled in Genoese politics, which had become more turbulent after Philip declared bankruptcy. Wars on two fronts, the Low Countries and the Mediterranean, had overtaxed his finances, and he suspended payments on debts prior to their renegotiation. With Santa Cruz in Naples, Don John could undertake little but occasional punitive strikes against Tunisian corsair lairs with his reduced fleet.
Governor Generalship of the Low Countries and death
Don John and Santa Cruz had planned a larger campaign for 1576, when in May he received the long-dreaded orders to proceed directly to the Low Countries as Governor General, following the death of Requeséns. In Rome he once more received encouragement in his schemes to liberate the Queen of Scots, making the governor-generalship more attractive. In northern Italy he halted, and sent his secretary Juan de Escobedo to Spain, to secure more money and win Philip's consent for his plans for the Queen of Scots. When by late summer Escobedo had not returned, Don John sailed for Spain. His shocked brother met with him privately at the Escorial. Philip seems to have accepted Don Juan’s plans for the Queen of Scots, but only after he had secured peace in the Low Countries. Because he was short of money, Philip expected Don John to achieve peace through diplomacy and negotiation. Having received his instructions, Don Juan and a few companions made a dash for the Low Countries across France, rent by religious civil war. Fearing Protestant assassins, Don John reportedly wore the disguise of a Moorish slave.While grievances in the Low Countries were many, at the heart of the revolt was religion, Calvinism
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
on the rebel side, Roman Catholicism on Philip's. Don John was a convinced Catholic, had crusaded for the Cross against the Muslim Turks and regarded Protestants simply as heretics. But some, particularly in the Low Countries, argued that limited toleration might be the only feasible solution for the revolt. Of the historic seventeen provinces, Holland and Zeeland
Zeeland
Zeeland , also called Zealand in English, is the westernmost province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the south-west of the country, consists of a number of islands and a strip bordering Belgium. Its capital is Middelburg. With a population of about 380,000, its area is about...
were largely in rebel control. The rebels made William, Prince of Orange
William the Silent
William I, Prince of Orange , also widely known as William the Silent , or simply William of Orange , was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of...
their leader. After Requeséns's death, Philip's army of Flanders
Flanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
, its pay in arrears, mutinied and began to maraud for loot and stores in the provinces not under rebel control. The States General
States-General of the Netherlands
The States-General of the Netherlands is the bicameral legislature of the Netherlands, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The parliament meets in at the Binnenhof in The Hague. The archaic Dutch word "staten" originally related to the feudal classes in which medieval...
of the Low Countries assembled at Ghent
Ghent
Ghent is a city and a municipality located in the Flemish region of Belgium. It is the capital and biggest city of the East Flanders province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Lys and in the Middle Ages became one of the largest and richest cities of...
while local authorities raised troops for self-defense. Delegates from the rebel provinces met with their fellows to find grounds for a common cause. In early November, mutineers sacked the city of Antwerp in what came to be called "the Spanish Fury
Spanish Fury
A Spanish Fury was a vindictive or rampant bloody pillage of a city in the Low Countries by Spanish regular or mutinous troops that occurred in the years 1572–1579 during the Dutch Revolt....
". At Ghent the delegates signed a Pacification which granted limited tolerance and authorized the raising of an army to deal with Philip's mutinous troops, whom they demanded be removed.
Don John got the news of the sack in Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
soon after his arrival, and learned that his acceptance as Governor General depended upon his acceding to the Pacification of Ghent
Pacification of Ghent
The Pacification of Ghent, signed on November 8, 1576, was an alliance of the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands for the purpose of driving mutinying Spanish mercenary troops from the country, and at the same time a peace treaty with the rebelling provinces Holland and Zeeland.-Background:In...
. Don Juan negotiated from Luxembourg, separate and loyal. He knew that removing the army would deprive him of the means to invade England, so he suggested that if the troops must go, it would be best to send them by sea and asked the States General to provide shipping.
The States General demurred and insisted they depart overland. They eventually did, marching south loaded with their plunder. With the army departing, the matter of toleration became the chief sticking point, with rebel demands that the Calvinist faith be practiced openly in the rebel provinces and be tolerated in the others, according to local initiative. These were terms neither Philip nor he would accept, but as Don Juan had no means of using force, he could only temporize. He issued a Perpetual Edict accepting the Pacification, but, confident that Catholics still remained the majority in the Low Countries, stipulated that panels of theologians hammer out the matter of toleration, with all to abide by their decisions.
As most were tired of wrangling and bloodshed, the States General accepted Don John as Governor General. In May 1577, he made his Joyous Entry
Joyous Entry
A Joyous Entry was a local name used for the royal entry - the first official peaceable visit of a reigning monarch, prince, duke or governor into a city - mainly in the Duchy of Brabant or the County of Flanders and occasionally in France, Luxembourg or Hungary, often coinciding with...
into Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
, promising to respect its historic privileges, which by extension had become the privileges of the seventeen provinces. As he assumed his office, he had to deal with the problem of his widowed mother in Ghent who scandalized her neighbors by her conduct. She had had two sons by Kegel, of whom one drowned and the other served in the royal army. At times she disowned Don John, despite receiving a government pension on his behalf. He eventually persuaded her to journey to Italy and meet Margaret of Parma. Her ship took her instead to Spain, where she was eventually settled on Escobedo's property near Santander and lived till 1598.
Don John agreed to meet with the rebel leader, the Prince of Orange, but the meeting never took place. Reports came from reliable sources that militant Protestants aimed to assassinate him. He took them seriously and in July used the visit of Marguerite de Valois
Marguerite de Valois
Margaret of Valois was Queen of France and of Navarre during the late sixteenth century...
, Queen of Navarre
Navarre
Navarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
, to Spa
Spa
The term spa is associated with water treatment which is also known as balneotherapy. Spa towns or spa resorts typically offer various health treatments. The belief in the curative powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been popular worldwide, but are...
as an excuse to meet her near Namur
Namur (city)
Namur is a city and municipality in Wallonia, in southern Belgium. It is both the capital of the province of Namur and of Wallonia....
. There were stories that on his dash through France they had a secret tryst in Paris. After she resumed her journey, Don John and his selected companions seized the citadel of Namur in violation of the Perpetual Edict. He sent Escobedo to Spain to explain to Philip the impossibility of gaining an acceptable peace and calling for the return of the army. The States General declared war on Don John. Don John, Farnese and the army had routed the States General's army at Gembloux
Gembloux
Gembloux is a Walloon municipality located in the Belgian province of Namur, on the axis Brussels-NamurOn 1 January 2006 the municipality had 21,964 inhabitants...
that January. On the news of Escobedo's murder Don Juan was perplexed, and knew not whom to believe. With the murder Don John did not see any future in his wishes to become a monarch in his own right. He is said to have lost motivation and trust in Philip his intentions. During his stay in present day Belgium he met Hillegond van Veen, daughter of Cornelis Jansz van Veen, Chief magistrate of Leyden and descendant of the Duke of Brabant.
Don John fathered a son, Johannes, with Hillegond van Veen. Tired and increasingly ill, he campaigned through the summer with mixed success, but failed in his attempt to take Brussels, after receiving a setback in the Battle of Rijmenam
Battle of Rijmenam (1578)
The Battle of Rijmenam was a battle fought in the early stages of the Eighty Years' War between the forces of the States-General of the Netherlands and those of the Spanish Governor-General of the Habsburg Netherlands, Don Juan de Austria, on 31 July 1578, near Rijmenam in present-day Belgium...
on 2 August 1578. He did win more and more of the Catholic nobles and towns to the royal cause. As ever money was a problem, and he felt his life was being doled out in bits and pieces, and complained to friends of the endless rainy weather. He married Hillegond quietly without obtaining approval from Philip. In September he pulled the army into camp near Namur to regroup.
Death
On 1 October 1578, he reportedly died of what contemporaries called camp fever (typhusTyphus
Epidemic typhus is a form of typhus so named because the disease often causes epidemics following wars and natural disasters...
). His army gave him a funeral due a hero. He had appointed Farnese his successor as Governor General, which Philip confirmed.
Post mortem
Don John of Austria's life inspired the 1835 play Don Juan d'Autriche by Casimir Delavigne
Casimir Delavigne
Jean-François Casimir Delavigne was a French poet and dramatist.-Biography:Delavigne was born at Le Havre, but was sent to Paris to be educated at the Lycée Napoleon. He read extensively...
, which served in turn as a source for two operas, Don John of Austria
Don John of Austria (opera)
Don John of Austria is a ballad opera in three acts by Isaac Nathan to a librettoby . It is the first opera to be written, composed and produced in Australia.Quote from the opera's title page:-Performance history:...
by Isaac Nathan
Isaac Nathan
Isaac Nathan was an Anglo-Australian composer, musicologist, journalist and self-publicist, who ended an eventful career by becoming the "father of Australian music".-Early success:...
in 1847 and Don Giovanni d'Austria by Filippo Marchetti
Filippo Marchetti
Filippo Marchetti was an Italian opera composer. After studying in Naples, his first opera was "successfully premiered" in Turin in 1856...
in 1879. Lepanto remains his great triumph. G. K. Chesterton
G. K. Chesterton
Gilbert Keith Chesterton, KC*SG was an English writer. His prolific and diverse output included philosophy, ontology, poetry, plays, journalism, public lectures and debates, literary and art criticism, biography, Christian apologetics, and fiction, including fantasy and detective fiction....
in 1911 published a poem, Lepanto, in which he dubbed Don Juan "the last knight of Europe".
In 1956, Louis de Wohl
Louis de Wohl
Louis de Wohl, earlier Ludwig von Wohl was a German-British Catholic author, and an astrologer notable for his work with MI5 during World War II. Sixteen of his popular pre-war novels were the basis of movies...
published The Last Crusader: A Novel about Don Juan of Austria, whose ambitions, above all for the Queen of Scots, tend to obscure his talent for statecraft and ability to lead. Frustrated by the religious factiousness in the Low Countries, he began the policies that Farnese would follow in keeping the ten southern provinces, comprising present-day Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
, Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
and much of the French Netherlands, Roman Catholic and loyal to Philip, and limiting the revolt to the northern seven heavily Protestant areas which eventually became the Dutch Republic
Dutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
.
External links
- Chronicle of the battle of Lepanto by Rev. Luis Coloma, SJ