Spanish Fury
Encyclopedia
A Spanish Fury was a vindictive or rampant bloody pillage of a city in the Low Countries by Spanish regular or mutinous troops that occurred in the years 1572–1579 during the Dutch Revolt
.
Unless contextually refuted, 'the Spanish Fury' denotes the one at Antwerp. Exceptionally, this singular expression refers to that entire mutinous campaign
of 1576, to the city punishments of 1572, or to the whole of Spanish Furies by which about 175 cities and villages became raided.
, including a petition by a covenant of noblemen
in the winter of 1565–66, had been rejected. The summer then brought many outbursts of iconoclasm
, in which 'Beeldenstorm' Calvinist
s defaced statues and decorations of Catholic
monasteries and churches. The Battle of Oosterweel
in March 1567 was the first Spanish repression of riots, a prelude or the start of the Eighty Years' War.
surrendered. The rebels' first victory, in May 1568 at Heiligerlee
, is by the Dutch
often regarded as the start of the War.
The Spanish King
's captain-general Alba, the Iron Duke
, with 10,000 men made the first military use of the Spanish Road
. He was granted powers exceeding those of the king's half-sister Margaret of Parma
, who had manoeuvred both Granvelle and William the Silent of Orange
to the background while trying to reconcile local priorities with Spanish orders. Upon their meeting, judging the duke's inflexibility on extreme positions, the duchess resigned. He replaced her as governor-general of the Seventeen Provinces
, and unlawfully instituted the Council of Troubles
in September of that same year. This court-martial style tribunal often sentenced political opponents and religious Reformists
to death, the more than 1,000 executions caused it being called the 'Council of Blood'.
Sea Beggars driven out of English harbours captured Brielle
on 1 April 1572. This foothold triggered anti-royalist rebellion in the Counties of Zeeland
and of Holland
. Other cities in the Low Countries that showed signs of rebellion against increased taxation and prosecution of Protestants
, or did not allow troops of either side in,
became vigorously forced into Catholicism and total political obedience to the Spanish Crown.
Baelde (1976) p. 376
Arnade (2008) p. 225–226
was accused of following his own whims rather than Philip
’s wishes. According to Henry Kamen
, Medinaceli
reported to the king that “Excessive rigour, the misconduct of some officers and soldiers, and the Tenth Penny
, are the cause of all the ills, and not heresy or rebellion.” [...] One of the governor’s officers reported that in the Netherlands “the name of the house of Alba” was held in abhorrence."
group="Note" name=Alva>The Dukes of Alba
that played an active role in the 16th century Netherlands, Fernando & Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, are in the Low Countries
, in their present language still, referred to as 'Alva'. Though the usual short name is 'Alba' in English, the Dutch one is occasionally borrowed for English language texts, e.g. chapter "Alva's Throne: Making Sense of the Revolt of the Netherlands" by Prof. Henk van Nierop in Graham Darby's The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt. son Fadrique
, three days long the city was sacked by his slaughtering, raping and pillaging troops. Alva reported to King Philip II
that "no nail was left in the wall".
Arnade (2008) p. 226–229 For the sack of Mechelen, Arnade also refers to: Marnef, Guido Het Calvinistisch bewind te Mechelen, 1580–85. Kortrijk-Heule, 1987.
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_AR-sub3>
Arnade (2008) p. 232–244
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_AR-sub3 />
name=SF-Haarlem>
By December 1573, too high and yet ineffective financial expenditures, and complaints about the sheer cruelty of the governor's expeditions, led to Requesens
replacing Alba, who returned to Spain. The notorious 'Council of Blood' ordered no more executions, and was already in June 1574 officially abolished by Requesens but remained in session until the Summer of 1576.
In October 1576, during the city of Maastricht
's rebellion against its fortress because of continued heavy payments, German soldiers of the Spanish garrison followed city council orders and stood aside. While some Spanish troops held out at one of the gates, others fled with the garrison's commander Francisco de Montesdoca to his minor fortification at Wyck just across the River Maas bridge. Though Montesdoca was offered safety during negotiations, he was arrested in the heat of this dispute. He was liberated while soldiery arriving from Dalem and those of Wyck captured the city. As few Spanish lives had been lost, the Germans were excused but had to make camp in neighbouring villages.
name=SF1-Maastricht_1 />
Motley (1855) Vol. III, chapter V. 1576–1577
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_BA-sub2>
Baelde (1976) p. 374
Morris (1998) p. 273
Rampant soldiers sacked about 170 places in the County of Brabant.
by which both Calvinists and Catholics decided to expel all Spanish troops, and for which negotiations had been going on since the sack of Aalst, was signed a few days after Antwerp's faith.
It was acceded to on 12 February 1577 by governor-general Don Juan when he signed the Perpetual Edict. A few months later, despite the agreed terms, Don Juan began planning a new campaign against the Dutch rebels, who found an ally in England's Elizabeth I
.
name=BloodyMary>
Queen Mary I of England
had married King Philip II of Spain to ensure continued reimposing of Catholicism on England: an heir would have prevented her Protestant half-sister Elisabeth's succession to the throne. The latter had been imprisoned by Mary in the aftermath of Wyatt's rebellion
. On 29 July 1554 Philip wrote to a correspondent in Brussels
, "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the Low Countries." (Porter, Linda
(2007). Mary Tudor: The First Queen. pp. 464. Piatkus Books Ltd, London, UK, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7499-0982-6. p. 320) In 1558, 'Bloody Mary' had died without such heir, de facto having kept the throne of a country in crisis warm for Elizabeth.
Though never recognized by Philip, an arrangement by Catholics put his nephew Matthias of Austria
, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, in the position of governor of the Netherlands until 1581.
Philip II would much later appoint another son of his sister Maria and Emperor Maximilian II
, Matthias' brother Ernest
as governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands.
, son of Margaret of Parma, reconquered a large part of the Netherlands by methods found honourable by friend and foe. Thereupon the Union of Arras was signed and only weeks later, on 23 January 1579, the Union of Utrecht
, at which the separation between southern and northern Netherlands became a fact. But the War was not finished.
Between 12 March and 1 July 1579 both sides suffered hard in the Siege of Maastricht
.
Maastricht was besieged at many other occasions, e.g. it withstood a siege by troops of Liège & Loon
in 1407–1408, lost the city's siege of 1673 during the Franco-Dutch War
, and the siege of its barrier fortress, in 1748
, by the end of the War of the Austrian Succession
.
The victorious attackers then held a second Spanish Fury at Maastricht, while their commander, Philip's governor Farnese, was too sick to intervene.
) (In particular Part I; A reformist point of view)
Dutch Revolt
The Dutch Revolt or the Revolt of the Netherlands This article adopts 1568 as the starting date of the war, as this was the year of the first battles between armies. However, since there is a long period of Protestant vs...
.
Unless contextually refuted, 'the Spanish Fury' denotes the one at Antwerp. Exceptionally, this singular expression refers to that entire mutinous campaign
Military campaign
In the military sciences, the term military campaign applies to large scale, long duration, significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of inter-related military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war...
of 1576, to the city punishments of 1572, or to the whole of Spanish Furies by which about 175 cities and villages became raided.
Background: A decade of upheaval
Several requests for relaxation of religious coercion in the Low CountriesLow Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
, including a petition by a covenant of noblemen
Compromise of Nobles
The Compromise'of Nobles was a covenant of members of the lesser nobility in the Habsburg Netherlands who came together to submit a petition to the Regent Margaret of Parma on 5 April 1566, with the objective of obtaining a moderation of the placards against heresy in the Netherlands...
in the winter of 1565–66, had been rejected. The summer then brought many outbursts of iconoclasm
Iconoclasm
Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction of religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. It is a frequent component of major political or religious changes...
, in which 'Beeldenstorm' Calvinist
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
s defaced statues and decorations of Catholic
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
monasteries and churches. The Battle of Oosterweel
Battle of Oosterweel
The Battle of Oosterweel took place on March 13, 1567, and is traditionally seen as the beginning of the Eighty Years' War. The battle was fought near the village of Oosterweel, north of Antwerp. A Spanish professional army under General Beauvoir defeated an army of radical Calvinists rebels under...
in March 1567 was the first Spanish repression of riots, a prelude or the start of the Eighty Years' War.
Gillis van Berlaymont
Gilles van Berlaymont was stadtholder for the Spanish Crown of Drenthe, Friesland, Groningen and Overijssel , stadtholder of Guelders , substitute stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht , stadtholder of Namur and Artois and baron of Hierges.He was the son of Charles de Berlaymont and Adriana...
surrendered. The rebels' first victory, in May 1568 at Heiligerlee
Battle of Heiligerlee
The Battle of Heiligerlee was fought between Dutch rebels and the Spanish army of Friesland. This was the first Dutch victory during the Eighty Years' War....
, is by the Dutch
Dutch people
The Dutch people are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Suriname, Chile, Brazil, Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and the United...
often regarded as the start of the War.
The Spanish King
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
's captain-general Alba, the Iron Duke
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba
Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands , nicknamed "the Iron Duke" in the Low Countries because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several...
, with 10,000 men made the first military use of the Spanish Road
Spanish Road
The "Spanish Road" was a military supply/trade route used from 1567–1620, which stretched from Northern Italy to the Low Countries. It crossed through relatively neutral territory, and was therefore Europe's most preferred military route...
. He was granted powers exceeding those of the king's half-sister Margaret of Parma
Margaret of Parma
Margaret, Duchess of Parma , Governor of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 and from 1578 to 1582, was the illegitimate daughter of Charles V and Johanna Maria van der Gheynst...
, who had manoeuvred both Granvelle and William the Silent of Orange
William the Silent
William I, Prince of Orange , also widely known as William the Silent , or simply William of Orange , was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of...
to the background while trying to reconcile local priorities with Spanish orders. Upon their meeting, judging the duke's inflexibility on extreme positions, the duchess resigned. He replaced her as governor-general of the Seventeen Provinces
Seventeen Provinces
The Seventeen Provinces were a personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 15th century and 16th century, roughly covering the current Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, a good part of the North of France , and a small part of Western Germany.The Seventeen Provinces were originally held by...
, and unlawfully instituted the Council of Troubles
Council of Troubles
The Council of Troubles was the special tribunal instituted on September 9, 1567 by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, governor-general of the Habsburg Netherlands on the orders of Philip II of Spain to punish the ringleaders of the recent political and religious "troubles" in the...
in September of that same year. This court-martial style tribunal often sentenced political opponents and religious Reformists
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
to death, the more than 1,000 executions caused it being called the 'Council of Blood'.
Sea Beggars driven out of English harbours captured Brielle
Capture of Brielle
The Capture of Brielle by the Sea Beggars, or Watergeuzen, on 1 April 1572 marked a turning point in the uprising of the Low Countries against Spain in the Eighty Years' War. Militarily the success was minor, as Brielle was not being defended at the time...
on 1 April 1572. This foothold triggered anti-royalist rebellion in the Counties of Zeeland
County of Zeeland
The County of Zeeland was a county of the Holy Roman Empire in what is now the Netherlands. It covered an area in the Scheldt and Meuse delta roughly corresponding to the current Dutch province of Zeeland, though it did not include the region of Zeeuws-Vlaanderen which was part of...
and of Holland
County of Holland
The County of Holland was a county in the Holy Roman Empire and from 1482 part of the Habsburg Netherlands in what is now the Netherlands. It covered an area roughly corresponding to the current Dutch provinces of North-Holland and South-Holland, as well as the islands of Terschelling, Vlieland,...
. Other cities in the Low Countries that showed signs of rebellion against increased taxation and prosecution of Protestants
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
, or did not allow troops of either side in,
became vigorously forced into Catholicism and total political obedience to the Spanish Crown.
Baelde (1976) p. 376
By underpaid military under regular command
Looting a conquered town was not very uncommon, and Governor Alba took it a step further by intentionally setting horrifying examples against sympathy for the rebels.Arnade (2008) p. 225–226
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba
Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands , nicknamed "the Iron Duke" in the Low Countries because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several...
was accused of following his own whims rather than Philip
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
’s wishes. According to Henry Kamen
Henry Kamen
Henry A. Kamen is a British historian born in Rangoon on Oct 4. 1936. He studied at the University of Oxford, earning his doctorate at St. Antony's College. He subsequently taught at the University of Warwick and various universities in Spain. In 1970, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal...
, Medinaceli
Juan de la Cerda, 4th Duke of Medinaceli
Juan de la Cerda, 4th Duke of Medinaceli, , Grandee of Spain, was a Spanish nobleman.He was the son of Don Juan de la Cerda, 2nd Duke of Medinaceli, by second wife María de Silva...
reported to the king that “Excessive rigour, the misconduct of some officers and soldiers, and the Tenth Penny
Financial history of the Dutch Republic
Financial history of the Dutch Republic describes the history of the interrelated development of financial institutions in the Dutch Republic. The rapid economic development of the country after the Dutch Revolt in the years 1585 - 1620, described in Economic History of the Netherlands ,...
, are the cause of all the ills, and not heresy or rebellion.” [...] One of the governor’s officers reported that in the Netherlands “the name of the house of Alba” was held in abhorrence."
- The Spanish Fury at Mechelen was the earliest event that became known by this term. After Orange's lieutenant Bernard of Merode had taken the city and controlled MechelenMechelenMechelen Footnote: Mechelen became known in English as 'Mechlin' from which the adjective 'Mechlinian' is derived...
for a month, he and his men left because a much stronger Spanish force was coming. Despite welcoming the latter by singing psalms of penitence in a gesture of surrender, from 2 October 1572, under command of Governor Alva's
group="Note" name=Alva>The Dukes of Alba
Dukes of Alba
Duke of Alba is a Spanish title of nobility accompanied with the dignity Grandee of Spain. In 1472 the title Count of Alba de Tormes, inherited by García Álvarez de Toledo, was elevated to the title Duke of Alba by King Henry IV of Castile....
that played an active role in the 16th century Netherlands, Fernando & Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, are in the Low Countries
Low Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
, in their present language still, referred to as 'Alva'. Though the usual short name is 'Alba' in English, the Dutch one is occasionally borrowed for English language texts, e.g. chapter "Alva's Throne: Making Sense of the Revolt of the Netherlands" by Prof. Henk van Nierop in Graham Darby's The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt. son Fadrique
Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba
Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo y Enríquez de Guzmán, 4th Duke of Alba, Grandee of Spain, , , was a commander in the Spanish army during the Eighty Years' War....
, three days long the city was sacked by his slaughtering, raping and pillaging troops. Alva reported to King Philip II
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
that "no nail was left in the wall".
Arnade (2008) p. 226–229 For the sack of Mechelen, Arnade also refers to: Marnef, Guido Het Calvinistisch bewind te Mechelen, 1580–85. Kortrijk-Heule, 1987.
- The Army of FlandersArmy of FlandersThe Army of Flanders was a Spanish Habsburg army based in the Netherlands during the 16th to 18th centuries. It was notable for being the longest standing army of the period, being in continuous service from 1567 until its disestablishment in 1706...
that had sacked Mechelen, reconquered Diest and Roermond, marched on to GueldersGueldersGuelders or Gueldres is the name of a historical county, later duchy of the Holy Roman Empire, located in the Low Countries.-Geography:...
and in November easily regained Zutphen, which had been taken for Orange in June. Don Fadrique ordered his men to kill the garrison and allowed them to murder and plunder the city. After the Massacre of Zutphen, the counties to its north capitulated.
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_AR-sub3>
Arnade (2008) p. 232–244
- By December at Naarden in Holland, the inhabitants negotiated their surrender but the city was sacked and burnt down, and only 60 people survived the Massacre of Naarden.
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_AR-sub3 />
- The Spanish Fury at HaarlemHaarlemHaarlem is a municipality and a city in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of North Holland, the northern half of Holland, which at one time was the most powerful of the seven provinces of the Dutch Republic...
, in 1573, following the half year long Siege of HaarlemSiege of HaarlemThe siege of Haarlem was an episode of the Eighty Years' War. From December 11, 1572 to July 13, 1573 an army of Philip II of Spain laid bloody siege to the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands, whose loyalties had begun wavering during the previous summer...
name=SF-Haarlem>
By December 1573, too high and yet ineffective financial expenditures, and complaints about the sheer cruelty of the governor's expeditions, led to Requesens
Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens
Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga also known as Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens was a Spanish politician and diplomat.-Biography:Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga was born at Molins de Rei...
replacing Alba, who returned to Spain. The notorious 'Council of Blood' ordered no more executions, and was already in June 1574 officially abolished by Requesens but remained in session until the Summer of 1576.
In October 1576, during the city of Maastricht
Maastricht
Maastricht is situated on both sides of the Meuse river in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands, on the Belgian border and near the German border...
's rebellion against its fortress because of continued heavy payments, German soldiers of the Spanish garrison followed city council orders and stood aside. While some Spanish troops held out at one of the gates, others fled with the garrison's commander Francisco de Montesdoca to his minor fortification at Wyck just across the River Maas bridge. Though Montesdoca was offered safety during negotiations, he was arrested in the heat of this dispute. He was liberated while soldiery arriving from Dalem and those of Wyck captured the city. As few Spanish lives had been lost, the Germans were excused but had to make camp in neighbouring villages.
- The Spanish Fury of October 1576 refers to the subsequent punishment of the city with a pillaging bloodbath.
name=SF1-Maastricht_1 />
Motley (1855) Vol. III, chapter V. 1576–1577
By abandoned military on looting expedition
Upon Requesens' death in March 1576, the Spanish king appointed his own half-brother Don Juan as Governor-General of the Netherlands but hesitated several months before notifying him. And then, the latter did not hurry immediately to these countries. The abandoned officers and ordinary soldiers not being paid, started a mutinous looting campaign with the style of conduct that had been demonstrated earlier.- The Spanish Fury at AalstAalstAalst can refer to:Place names* Aalst, Belgium, a city and municipality in Belgium* Aalst, Buren, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland* Aalst, North Brabant, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of North-Brabant...
, a city that had always been loyal, showed that the military insurgences that had been occurring more than occasionally since 1573, had totally run out of hand by July 1576.
name=SEE-BIBLIOGRAPHY_BA-sub2>
Baelde (1976) p. 374
Morris (1998) p. 273
Rampant soldiers sacked about 170 places in the County of Brabant.
- The Spanish Fury at Antwerp, the most famous event by this name, also known as the Sack of AntwerpSack of AntwerpThe sack of Antwerp or the Spanish Fury at Antwerp was an episode of the Eighty Years' War.On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios began the sack of Antwerp, leading to three days of horror among the population of the city, which was the cultural, economic and financial center of the Netherlands. The...
, occurred when the forces coming from Aalst and those from Maastricht met in November 1576.
Aftermath
The Pacification of GhentPacification of Ghent
The Pacification of Ghent, signed on November 8, 1576, was an alliance of the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands for the purpose of driving mutinying Spanish mercenary troops from the country, and at the same time a peace treaty with the rebelling provinces Holland and Zeeland.-Background:In...
by which both Calvinists and Catholics decided to expel all Spanish troops, and for which negotiations had been going on since the sack of Aalst, was signed a few days after Antwerp's faith.
It was acceded to on 12 February 1577 by governor-general Don Juan when he signed the Perpetual Edict. A few months later, despite the agreed terms, Don Juan began planning a new campaign against the Dutch rebels, who found an ally in England's Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I of England
Elizabeth I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty...
.
name=BloodyMary>
Queen Mary I of England
Mary I of England
Mary I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death.She was the only surviving child born of the ill-fated marriage of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon. Her younger half-brother, Edward VI, succeeded Henry in 1547...
had married King Philip II of Spain to ensure continued reimposing of Catholicism on England: an heir would have prevented her Protestant half-sister Elisabeth's succession to the throne. The latter had been imprisoned by Mary in the aftermath of Wyatt's rebellion
Wyatt's rebellion
Wyatt's Rebellion was a popular uprising in England in 1554, named after Thomas Wyatt the younger, one of its leaders. The rebellion arose out of concern over Queen Mary I's determination to marry Philip II of Spain, which was an unpopular policy with the English...
. On 29 July 1554 Philip wrote to a correspondent in Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
, "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the Low Countries." (Porter, Linda
Linda Porter (historian)
Linda Porter was born in Exeter, Devon in 1947. Her family have long-standing connections to the West Country, but moved to the London area when she was a small child. She was educated at Walthamstow Hall School in Sevenoaks and at the University of York, from which she has a doctorate in History...
(2007). Mary Tudor: The First Queen. pp. 464. Piatkus Books Ltd, London, UK, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7499-0982-6. p. 320) In 1558, 'Bloody Mary' had died without such heir, de facto having kept the throne of a country in crisis warm for Elizabeth.
Though never recognized by Philip, an arrangement by Catholics put his nephew Matthias of Austria
Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor
Matthias of Austria was Holy Roman Emperor from 1612, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1608 and King of Bohemia from 1611...
, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, in the position of governor of the Netherlands until 1581.
Philip II would much later appoint another son of his sister Maria and Emperor Maximilian II
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
, Matthias' brother Ernest
Archduke Ernest of Austria
Archduke Ernest of Austria was an Austrian nobleman, the son of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria of Spain....
as governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands.
By uncontrolled victorious military
Alexander FarneseAlexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
Alexander Farnese was Duke of Parma and Piacenza from 1586 to 1592, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592.-Biography:...
, son of Margaret of Parma, reconquered a large part of the Netherlands by methods found honourable by friend and foe. Thereupon the Union of Arras was signed and only weeks later, on 23 January 1579, the Union of Utrecht
Union of Utrecht
The Union of Utrecht was a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Netherlands, until then under the control of Habsburg Spain....
, at which the separation between southern and northern Netherlands became a fact. But the War was not finished.
Between 12 March and 1 July 1579 both sides suffered hard in the Siege of Maastricht
Siege of Maastricht (1579)
The Siege of Maastricht was a battle of the Eighty Years' War it lasted from March 12 - July 1, 1579. The Spanish were victorious.-Prelude:In 1579 the city of Maastricht was in the hands of the Dutch rebels. On March 12 1579 the Spanish General Alexander Farnese started to lay siege to the city...
.
Maastricht was besieged at many other occasions, e.g. it withstood a siege by troops of Liège & Loon
County of Loon
The County of Loon was a state of the Holy Roman Empire, lying west of the Meuse river in present-day Flemish-speaking Belgium, and east of the old Duchy of Brabant. The most important cities of the county were Beringen, Bilzen, Borgloon, Bree, Hamont, Hasselt, Herk-de-Stad, Maaseik, Peer and...
in 1407–1408, lost the city's siege of 1673 during the Franco-Dutch War
Franco-Dutch War
The Franco-Dutch War, often called simply the Dutch War was a war fought by France, Sweden, the Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Cologne and England against the United Netherlands, which were later joined by the Austrian Habsburg lands, Brandenburg and Spain to form a quadruple alliance...
, and the siege of its barrier fortress, in 1748
Siege of Maastricht (1748)
The Siege of Maastricht took place in April-May 1748 during the War of the Austrian Succession. A French force under the overall command of Maurice de Saxe besieged and captured the Dutch barrier fortress of Maastricht in the final few months of the campaign in the Low Countries. After a relatively...
, by the end of the War of the Austrian Succession
War of the Austrian Succession
The War of the Austrian Succession – including King George's War in North America, the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear, and two of the three Silesian wars – involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg.The...
.
The victorious attackers then held a second Spanish Fury at Maastricht, while their commander, Philip's governor Farnese, was too sick to intervene.
See also
- House of Habsburg
- In absence of an article on this cardinal, counsellor of Philip II, see :nl:Diego Espinosa y Arévalo on the Dutch language Wikipedia sister project
- Counter-ReformationCounter-ReformationThe Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
- Letters from the Segovia WoodsLetters from the Segovia WoodsThe Letters from the Segovia Woods denote two sets of letters Philip II of Spain sent to his Regent Margaret of Parma, rejecting requests to abolish the ordinances outlawing heresy in the Habsburg Netherlands on 17 and 20 October, 1565, and 31 July, 1566...
- GeuzenGeuzenGeuzen was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents, who from 1566 opposed Spanish rule in the Netherlands. The most successful group of them operated at sea, and so were called Watergeuzen...
- Martyrs of GorkumMartyrs of GorkumThe Martyrs of Gorkum were a group of 19 Dutch Catholic clergy and friars who suffered martyrdom in the sixteenth century for their faith in the town of Gorinchem .-Events:...
- St. Bartholomew's Day massacreSt. Bartholomew's Day massacreThe St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots , during the French Wars of Religion...
- Overview of military events in the Netherlands during 1572: :nl:Bezettingen van 1572 on the Dutch language Wikipedia sister project
- In absence of an article 'Spanish Fury at Mechelen', see :nl:Spaanse Furie (Mechelen) —and :nl:Bernard van Merode (1510-1591)— on the Dutch language Wikipedia sister project
- St. Rumbold's Cathedral#Church interior (Mechelen)
- In absence of an article 'Massacre of Zutphen', see :nl:Bloedbad van Zutphen on the Dutch language Wikipedia sister project
- In absence of an article 'Massacre of Naarden', see :nl:Bloedbad van Naarden on the Dutch language Wikipedia sister project
- In absence of a proper chapter about the four years that 'Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor,' had spent in the Netherlands, see :de:Matthias (HRR)#Statthalter in den Niederlanden on the German language Wikipedia sister project
- Francisco VerdugoFrancisco VerdugoFrancisco Verdugo, Spanish military commander in the Dutch Revolt, born in 1537 in , became Maestre de Campo General, in the Spanish Netherlands....
External links
— A (northern) Dutch recount of the 16th century retated to the Seventeen Provinces Vol. I 1552–65, II 1566, III 1567–72, IV 1572–74, V 1574–77, VI 1577–79, VII 1579–81, VIII 1581–84, Suppl., Cont. — Or, in German translation: (See also the book's article on this WikipediaThe Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age
The Embarrassment of Riches: An interpretation of Dutch culture in the Golden Age is a book by the historian Simon Schama. It was published in 1987, five years after the bicentenary of the Dutch recognition of the young United States. The book sold quite well and led to an immediate second...
) (In particular Part I; A reformist point of view)