Papilio dardanus
Encyclopedia
Papilio dardanus is a species of butterfly
in the family Papilionidae (the Swallowtails). The species is broadly distributed
throughout sub-Saharan Africa
. The British entomologist E. B. Poulton described it as "the most interesting butterfly in the world".
have provided evidence that this species' closest relative is Papilio phorcas
, with Papilio constantinus
being the next closest (see images below).
in wing
appearance, though this is limited to female
s, which are often given as an example of Batesian mimicry
in insects. This female-limited mimicry was first described in 1869 by Roland Trimen. Male
s have a more or less uniform appearance throughout the species' range, but females come in at least 14 varieties or morphs. Some female morphs share a very similar pattern of colouration
with various species of distasteful butterfly (e.g. from the family Danaidae), while others have been found that mimic male appearance (andromorphs). The persistence of these various morphs or different types of females may be explained by frequency dependent selection
. Cook et al. suggest that Batesian mimics gain a fitness advantage by avoiding predators, but suffer harassment from males (see sexual conflict
), whereas andromorphs (male mimics) are vulnerable to predation
but are not harassed by male mating
attempts.
Such female-limited Batesian mimicry is not unique to this species, even in the genus Papilio
. For instance Papilio memnon
shows a similar case of polymorphism in females. Similarly, male mimicry has been observed in another insect, a damselfly
(Ischnura ramburii) which also appears to have evolved camouflage to avoid sexual coercion by males.
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
in the family Papilionidae (the Swallowtails). The species is broadly distributed
Range (biology)
In biology, the range or distribution of a species is the geographical area within which that species can be found. Within that range, dispersion is variation in local density.The term is often qualified:...
throughout sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
. The British entomologist E. B. Poulton described it as "the most interesting butterfly in the world".
Classification
Molecular studiesMolecular biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
have provided evidence that this species' closest relative is Papilio phorcas
Papilio phorcas
The Apple-green Swallowtail or Green Banded Swallowtail is a butterfly of the Papilionidae family. It is found in Africa.-Subspecies:...
, with Papilio constantinus
Papilio constantinus
The Constantine's Swallowtail is a butterfly of the Papilionidae family. It is found in Subsaharan Africa.The wingspan is 70–90 mm in males and 80–95 mm in females...
being the next closest (see images below).
Subspecies
Listed alphabetically.- P. d. antinorii Oberthür, 1883
- P. d. byatti Poulton, 1926
- P. d. cenea Stoll, [1790]
- P. d. dardanus Brown, 1776
- P. d. figinii Storace, 1962
- P. d. flavicornis Carpenter, 1947
- P. d. humbloti Oberthür, 1888
- P. d. meriones C. & R. Felder, 1865
- P. d. meseres Carpenter, 1948
- P. d. ochraceana Vane-Wright 1995
- P. d. polytrophus Rothschild & Jordan, 1903
- P. d. sulfurea Palisot de Beauvois, 1806
- P. d. tibullus Kirby, 1880
Mimicry
The species shows polymorphismPolymorphism (biology)
Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
in wing
Insect wing
Insects are the only group of invertebrates known to have evolved flight. Insects possess some remarkable flight characteristics and abilities, still far superior to attempts by humans to replicate their capabilities. Even our understanding of the aerodynamics of flexible, flapping wings and how...
appearance, though this is limited to female
Female
Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, which produces non-mobile ova .- Defining characteristics :The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male...
s, which are often given as an example of Batesian mimicry
Batesian mimicry
Batesian mimicry is a form of mimicry typified by a situation where a harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a common predator...
in insects. This female-limited mimicry was first described in 1869 by Roland Trimen. Male
Male
Male refers to the biological sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the process of fertilization...
s have a more or less uniform appearance throughout the species' range, but females come in at least 14 varieties or morphs. Some female morphs share a very similar pattern of colouration
Animal colouration
Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. The mechanisms for colour production in animals include pigments, chromatophores, structural coloration, and bioluminescence....
with various species of distasteful butterfly (e.g. from the family Danaidae), while others have been found that mimic male appearance (andromorphs). The persistence of these various morphs or different types of females may be explained by frequency dependent selection
Frequency dependent selection
Frequency-dependent selection is the term given to an evolutionary process where the fitness of a phenotype is dependent on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in a given population. In positive frequency-dependent selection the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common...
. Cook et al. suggest that Batesian mimics gain a fitness advantage by avoiding predators, but suffer harassment from males (see sexual conflict
Sexual conflict
Sexual conflict occurs when the two sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction, particularly the mode and frequency of mating, leading to an evolutionary arms race between males and females. The conflict encompasses the actions and behaviors of both sexes to influence...
), whereas andromorphs (male mimics) are vulnerable to predation
Predation
In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey . Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption...
but are not harassed by male mating
Mating
In biology, mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for copulation. In social animals, it also includes the raising of their offspring. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization...
attempts.
Such female-limited Batesian mimicry is not unique to this species, even in the genus Papilio
Papilio
Papilio is a genus in the swallowtail butterfly family, Papilionidae. The word papilio is Latin for butterfly.The genus includes a number of well-known North American species such as the Western Tiger Swallowtail...
. For instance Papilio memnon
Papilio memnon
The Great Mormon is a large butterfly that belongs to the swallowtail family and is found in southern Asia. It is widely distributed and has thirteen subspecies...
shows a similar case of polymorphism in females. Similarly, male mimicry has been observed in another insect, a damselfly
Damselfly
Damselflies are insects in the order Odonata. Damselflies are similar to dragonflies, but the adults can be distinguished by the fact that the wings of most damselflies are held along, and parallel to, the body when at rest...
(Ischnura ramburii) which also appears to have evolved camouflage to avoid sexual coercion by males.
See also
- DardanusDardanusIn Greek mythology, Dardanus was a son of Zeus and Electra, daughter of Atlas, and founder of the city of Dardania on Mount Ida in the Troad....
(figure in Greek mythology) - Disruptive selectionDisruptive selectionDisruptive selection, also called diversifying selection, describes changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values. In this case, the variance of the trait increases and the population is divided into two distinct groups...
- SupergeneSupergeneA supergene is a group of neighbouring genes on a chromosome which are inherited together because of close genetic linkage and are functionally related in an evolutionary sense, although they are rarely co-regulated genetically....
- E. B. Ford, Philip Sheppard and Cyril ClarkeCyril ClarkeSir Cyril Astley Clarke KBE, FRCP, FRCOG, FRC Path, FRS was a British physician, geneticist and lepidopterist...
(some notable researchers)
