Papilio demoleus
Encyclopedia
- Common names: Common Lime Butterfly, Lemon Butterfly, Lime Swallowtail, Small Citrus Butterfly, Chequered Swallowtail, Dingy Swallowtail, Citrus Swallowtail.
Papilio demoleus, the Common Lime Butterfly, is a common and widespread Swallowtail
Swallowtail butterfly
Swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful butterflies that form the family Papilionidae. There are over 550 species, and though the majority are tropical, members of the family are found on all continents except Antarctica...
butterfly
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
. It gets its name from its host plants which are usually citrus species such as the cultivated lime
Lime (fruit)
Lime is a term referring to a number of different citrus fruits, both species and hybrids, which are typically round, green to yellow in color, 3–6 cm in diameter, and containing sour and acidic pulp. Limes are a good source of vitamin C. Limes are often used to accent the flavors of foods and...
. Unlike most swallowtail butterflies it does not have a prominent tail. The butterfly has also been referred to as the Citrus swallowtail, a name it shares with a morphologically similar species, Papilio demodocus
Papilio demodocus
Papilio demodocus, also known as the citrus swallowtail, is a large swallowtail butterfly common to sub-Saharan Africa. It is a pest species, the caterpillar feeding on citrus trees.-Life cycle:...
which flies in Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
. The butterfly is a pest and invasive species
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
from the Old World
Old World
The Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....
which has spread to the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
and Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
.
Description
- See glossaryGlossary of Lepidopteran termsThis glossary describes the terms used in the formal descriptions of insect species, jargon used mostly by professionals or entomologist....
for terms used
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As the butterfly ages, the yellow markings on the wings deepen to orange.
Detailed description as given in Bingham (1905):
Status, range and habitat
Papilio demoleus is an aggressive and very common butterfly. It is perhaps the most widely distributed swallowtail in the world. The butterfly can be found in:Formerly absent from Borneo
Borneo
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....
it is now one of the commonest papilionids in Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
and Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
in Malaysian Borneo, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and in Brunei
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
.
In recent years the butterfly has spread to Hispaniola
Hispaniola
Hispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
island (Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
) in the Western Hemisphere, and subsequently to Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
, and Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
. The Dominican population originated from Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
but how the butterfly reached there is not known.
The widespread range of Papilio demoleus indicates the butterfly's tolerance and adaptation to diverse habitats. It is to be found in savannahs, fallow lands, gardens, evergreen
Evergreen
In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs...
and semi-evergreen forests and shows a preference for stream and riverbeds. In India it is mostly found in the plains but can be found on the hills of peninsular India and up to 7000 feet in the Himalayas. It is common in urban gardens and may also be encountered in wooded country. The butterfly is also a very successful invader
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
, its spread appearing to be due to its strong flight, increase in urbanisation and agricultural land use that opens up new areas for dispersal, and greater availability of foodplants.
Taxonomy
Five related butterflies form the group of lime butterflies in the genus Papilio of which Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 is the flagship species which gives the name to the group. The other morphologically related butterflies are :- Papilio demodocusPapilio demodocusPapilio demodocus, also known as the citrus swallowtail, is a large swallowtail butterfly common to sub-Saharan Africa. It is a pest species, the caterpillar feeding on citrus trees.-Life cycle:...
(Esper, 1798) - Papilio erithonioidesPapilio erithonioidesPapilio erithonioides is a species of swallowtail butterfly from the genus Papilio that is found in Madagascar....
Grose-Smith, 1891. - Papilio grosesmithiPapilio grosesmithiPapilio grosesmithi is a species of butterfly in the Papilionidae family. It is endemic to Madagascar.-Source:* Gimenez Dixon, M. 1996. . Downloaded on 31 July 2007....
RothschildWalter Rothschild, 2nd Baron RothschildLionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild FRS , a scion of the Rothschild family, was a British banker, politician, and zoologist.-Biography:...
, 1926. - Papilio morondavana Grose-Smith, 1891.
The Citrus Swallowtail (Papilio demodocus
Papilio demodocus
Papilio demodocus, also known as the citrus swallowtail, is a large swallowtail butterfly common to sub-Saharan Africa. It is a pest species, the caterpillar feeding on citrus trees.-Life cycle:...
Esper), flies in sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
where the Common Lime Butterfly is not found while the other three species are endemic to Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
.
Research into the biogeography
Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species , organisms, and ecosystems in space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area...
, phylogeny, and analysis of vicariance relationships dating back to the Cretaceous, of the "lime butterfly" or "demoleus" group, suggest that the group of lime swallowtails diversified in Malagasy in the middle Miocene
Miocene
The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
.
Six subspecies are recognised in Papilio demoleus:
- P. d. demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 - Across Asia from China to the Arabian peninsula.
- P. d. libanius FruhstorferHans FruhstorferHans Fruhstorfer was a German explorer, insect trader and entomologist who specialised in Lepidoptera. He collected and described many new species of exotic butterflies, especially in Seitz's Macrolepidoptera of the World...
, 1908 - Taiwan, Philippines, Sula, Talaud. - P. d. malayanus WallaceAlfred Russel WallaceAlfred Russel Wallace, OM, FRS was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist...
, 1865 - Sumatra and the Malaysian peninsula. - P. d. novoguineensis Rothschild, 1908 - Papua New Guinea.
- P. d. sthenelus Macleay, 1826 - Sumba and Australia.
- P. d. stenelinus Rothschild, 1895 - Flores and Alor.
Habits
This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its wings held wide open on tufts of grassGrass
Grasses, or more technically graminoids, are monocotyledonous, usually herbaceous plants with narrow leaves growing from the base. They include the "true grasses", of the Poaceae family, as well as the sedges and the rushes . The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns ...
, herbs and generally keeps within a metre above the ground, even on cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for escape.
It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a number of modes of flight. In the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an edible and unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In the hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it will remain motionless, except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not disturbed.
It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a preference for flowers of smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the ubiquitous Lantana
Lantana
Lantana is a genus of about 150 species of perennial flowering plants in the verbena family, Verbenaceae. They are native to tropical regions of the Americas and Africa but exist as an introduced species in numerous areas, especially in the Australian-Pacific region. The genus includes both...
with its plentiful blooms. It can be found swarming in the groves of its foodplants.
Research on freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus showed that they have an inborn or spontaneous preference while feeding for blue and purple colours while the yellow, yellowish-green, green and blue-green colours are completely neglected.
Lifecycle
The number of generations of Papilio demoleus is dependent upon temperature - near the equator, nine generations have been recorded, while in warm temperate China, five generations have been recorded. In the ideal conditions of a laboratory, a generation has been recorded to take place in just over 30 days. The average time for one generation of Papilio demoleus to mature in the field ranges from 26 to 59 days. In cold climates, the lime butterfly is known to pass the winter as pupae. Typically, the butterfly undergoes five instars as a caterpillar.The female butterfly goes from plant to plant, laying a single egg at a time on top of a leaf which it holds onto with its legs, and flies off as soon as the egg is laid. The egg is round, light yellowish in colour, flattened at the base, smooth-surfaced and abour 1.5 mm in height. Fertile eggs develop a small red mark at the apex.
The newly hatched caterpillar stays in the middle of the upperside of the leaf. The first instar of the caterpillar is black, with a black heads and two rows of sub-dorsal fleshy spines. The second,third and fourth instars are dark, with glossy, dark-brown head, and white markings on the 8th and 9th segments of the caterpillar which resemble a white patch of uric acid deposited in a bird's droppings, helping them escape predation
Predation
In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey . Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption...
while remaining in moderately open places.
As the instars progress, this resemblance is lost. From the fifth instar onwards, the caterpillars now turn cylindrical in shape, taperered towards the rear, and uniformly pale green in colour with a white sub-spiracular band. An additional black band is developed on the 4th and 5th segments with two black and two bluish spots on them. The 8th and 9th segments, which earlier provided the camouflage markings now develop a brown and white band. At this stage, the caterpillars are forced to inhabit secluded places.
The pupa
Pupa
A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago...
, which is rugose, stout and 30 mm in length, has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax and resembles that of the Common Mormon Papilio polytes
Papilio polytes
The Common Mormon is a common species of swallowtail butterfly widely distributed across Asia. This butterfly is known for the mimicry displayed by the numerous forms of its females which mimic inedible Red-bodied Swallowtails, such as the Common Rose and the Crimson Rose.- Names :The common name...
, the difference being that the Common Mormon pupa has a deeper cut between the projections and its abdomen is more protruded on the sides, having a small point.
The pupa is dimorphic with regards to colour, with the colour developing according to the prevalent colour and texture in the background. The green morph, which is found amongst green vegetation and smoother textures, is light green and unmarked or with yellow dorsal markings. When situated among brown or dry objects, the pupa tend to turn light grey-brown to pink-brown and develop cryptic dark brown and black striation.
The adults fly in every month but are particularly abundant during and after the monsoons.
Captive breeding of Papilio demoleus in Riyadh have revealed the following data about the life-span of various stages at that locality:
- No of generations per year: Eight.
- Duration of egg stage: 3.1 to 6.1 days.
- Duration of larva stage: 12.9 and 22.7 days.
- Duration of pupa stage: 8.0 to 22.4 days.
- Duration of adult stage: 4 to 6 days with average of 5.1 days.
Parasitism and predation
Despite their two stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of Papilio demoleus are found by parasitic waspWasp
The term wasp is typically defined as any insect of the order Hymenoptera and suborder Apocrita that is neither a bee nor an ant. Almost every pest insect species has at least one wasp species that preys upon it or parasitizes it, making wasps critically important in natural control of their...
s which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp
Parasitoid
A parasitoid is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life history attached to or within a single host organism in a relationship that is in essence parasitic; unlike a true parasite, however, it ultimately sterilises or kills, and sometimes consumes, the host...
larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
eat the caterpillar from the inside. Initially the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to pupate even the vital organs are consumed. Soon after the caterpillar pupates, the parasitoids emerge from the pupa thus killing it.
In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus
Bacillus
Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria and a member of the division Firmicutes. Bacillus species can be obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes, and test positive for the enzyme catalase. Ubiquitous in nature, Bacillus includes both free-living and pathogenic species...
. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily predated upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees.
In India, the following braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize Papilio demoleus larvae:
- Apanteles spp. including Apanteles papilionis.
- Bracon hebetorBracon hebetorBracon hebetor is a minute Braconidae wasp that is an internal parasite to the caterpillar stage of Plodia interpunctella, the Indian meal moth, in the late larval stage of the Mediterranean flour moth and the almond moth....
.
In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of Papilio demoleus:
- Egg parasites -
- Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (HymenopteraHymenopteraHymenoptera is one of the largest orders of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees and ants. There are over 130,000 recognized species, with many more remaining to be described. The name refers to the heavy wings of the insects, and is derived from the Ancient Greek ὑμήν : membrane and...
: EncyrtidaeEncyrtidaeEncyrtidae is a large family of parasitic wasps, with some 3710 described species in some 455 genera . The larvae of the majority are primary parasitoids on Hemiptera, though other hosts are attacked, and details of the life history can be variable Encyrtidae is a large family of parasitic wasps,...
) - TetrastichusTetrastichusTetrastichus is a genus of hymenopteran insects of the family Eulophidae.Tetrastichus planipennisi is a parasitoid of the Emerald ash borer, a wood boring insect native to Asia which is an invasive species in North Ammerica. T. planipennisi is being evaluated as a biological control.-References:**...
sp. (Hymenoptera: EulophidaeEulophidaeEulophidae is a large family of hymenopteran insects, with over 4,300 described species in some 300 genera . The family as presently defined also includes the genus Elasmus, which was previously treated as a separate family, "Elasmidae", and is now treated as a subfamily of Eulophidae...
).
- Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera
- Larval stage -
- Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (DipteraDipteraDiptera , or true flies, is the order of insects possessing only a single pair of wings on the mesothorax; the metathorax bears a pair of drumstick like structures called the halteres, the remnants of the hind wings. It is a large order, containing an estimated 240,000 species, although under half...
: TachinidaeTachinidaeTachinidae is a large and rather variable family of true flies within the insect order Diptera, with more than 8,200 known species and many more to be discovered. There are over 1300 species in North America. Insects in this family are commonly called tachina flies or simply tachinids...
) (parasite). - Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (PentatomidaePentatomidaePentatomidae, Greek pente meaning five and tomos meaning section, is a family of insects belonging to order hemiptera that includes some of the stink bugs and shield bugs. Their antennae are 5-segmented, which gives the family its scientific name. Their bodies are usually shield-shaped...
predator. - Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and chameleonChameleonChameleons are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of lizards. They are distinguished by their parrot-like zygodactylous feet, their separately mobile and stereoscopic eyes, their very long, highly modified, and rapidly extrudable tongues, their swaying gait, the possession by many of a...
s.
- Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera
- Pupal parasites -
- Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: ChalcididaeChalcididaeThe Chalcididae are a moderate-sized family within the Chalcidoidea, composed mostly of parasitoids and a few hyperparasitoids. The family is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and some may be elevated to family status in the near future. As...
) - Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: PteromalidaePteromalidaePteromalidae is a very large family of parasitic wasps, with some 3,450 described species in some 640 genera...
).
- Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae
In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.
Foodplants
Rutaceae
Rutaceae, commonly known as the rue or citrus family, is a family of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales.Species of the family generally have flowers that divide into four or five parts, usually with strong scents...
while in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea , officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands...
the butterfly also feeds on host-plants of family Fabaceae
Fabaceae
The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, is a large and economically important family of flowering plants. The group is the third largest land plant family, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species...
.
Family Rutaceae
- Cultivated limeLime (fruit)Lime is a term referring to a number of different citrus fruits, both species and hybrids, which are typically round, green to yellow in color, 3–6 cm in diameter, and containing sour and acidic pulp. Limes are a good source of vitamin C. Limes are often used to accent the flavors of foods and...
, orangeMandarin orangeThe orange, also known as the ' or mandarine , is a small citrus tree with fruit resembling other oranges. Mandarin oranges are usually eaten plain or in fruit salads...
and lemonLemonThe lemon is both a small evergreen tree native to Asia, and the tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit. The fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world – primarily for its juice, though the pulp and rind are also used, mainly in cooking and baking...
.- C. aurantifolia, C. grandis, C. limon, C. sinensis,
- Atalanta racemosa
- Glycosmis pentaphylla, Glycosmis arborea
- Ruta graveolens
- BaelBaelBael Bael (Aegle marmelos) Bael (Aegle marmelos) (Bengal quince, stone apple, Sanskrit : विल्व, Malayalam: കൂവളം, Bengali: বেল, Hindi: बेल (Sirphal), Marathi: बेल or कवीठ (Kaveeth), , Sindhi: ڪاٺ گدرو , Sinhalese: beli, Tamil: வில்வம் is a species of tree native to India...
(Aegle marmelos) - Murraya koenigii
- Chloroxylon swietenia
- Ber (Ziziphus mauritianaZiziphus mauritianaZiziphus mauritiana, also known as Jujube, Chinee Apple, Indian plum, and permseret , is a tropical fruit tree species belonging to the family Rhamnaceae....
) - Acronychia pedunculataAcronychia pedunculataAcronychia pedunculata is a large shrub or small tree of the understory, gaps and fringes of low country and lower hill tropical forests of tropical Asia. Leaves: elliptic to subolong, often with tapered base. Twigs more or less angular, glabrous. Flowers: greenish white; I-acillary, corymbose...
- Microcitrus australis (Australian round-lime, Australian lime).
Family Fabaceae
They have been observed on :- Many species of CullenCullen (genus)Cullen is a genus of legumes native to tropical, subtropical and arid regions of Africa, Asia and Australia. Despite the origin implied in the name of the constituent species Cullen americanum, legumes of this genus are not native to the Americas.Cullen was previously included in broad definitions...
: Cullen australasicum, C. badocanum, C. balsamicum, C. cinereum, C. patens (spreading scurf-pea, native verbine), C. pustulatum and C. tenax (tough scurf-pea, emu-foot, emu grass), and C. leucanthum. - Psoralea pinnataPsoralea pinnataPsoralea pinnata is an erect evergreen shrub or small tree that grows to a height of to tall.- Description :This plant has fine deep green linear leaves that are deeply divided with a length of about...
(fountain bush).
Economic significance
Hand-picking of caterpillars and spraying with Endosulphan 35 EC (2 ml/10 litres of water) are the recommended means of pest control by the FICCI
FICCI
The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry is an association of business organizations in India, headquartered in the national capital New Delhi. FICCI is one of the main organizations to fund and support many governmental and non-governmental educational institutes...
Agri-business Information Centre of India.
External links
- Host plant database, NHM UK
- line swallowtail on the UF / IFASInstitute of Food and Agricultural SciencesThe University of Florida’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is a federal-state-county partnership dedicated to developing knowledge in agriculture, human and natural resources, and the life sciences, and enhancing and sustaining the quality of human life by making that information...
Featured Creatures Web site