Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan
Encyclopedia
Patrick Sarsfield created the first Earl of Lucan
, Irish
Jacobite
and soldier, belonged to an Anglo-Norman
family long settled in Ireland.
, who organized the Irish Rebellion of 1641
. The family was of Norman origin (by this time the origin was known as "Old English"
) and possessed an estate with an income of £
2,000 a year. Patrick, who was a younger son, entered Dongan's Regiment of Foot on 6 February 1678.
In his early years he is known to have challenged Lord Grey
for a supposed reflection on the veracity of the Irish people (September 1681), and in the December of that year he was run through the body in a duel
in which he engaged as second.
In 1682-83 while in London
, Sarsfield took part in two abductions of heiresses
. In May 1682 he helped his friend Captain Robert Clifford to abduct Ann Siderlin, a wealthy widow, and was considered lucky not to be prosecuted. Then he abducted Elizabeth Herbert, the widowed daughter of Lord Chandos
, on his own account. Elizabeth refused to marry him, but agreed not to prosecute him in exchange for her freedom.
During the last years of the reign of Charles II
he saw service in the English regiments that were attached to the army of Louis XIV of France
. The accession of James II
led to his return home.
He took part in the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion
at the Battle of Sedgemoor
on 6 July 1685. In the following year, he was promoted to a colonelcy. King James had adopted the policy of remodelling the Irish army so as to turn it from a Protestant-led force to a Catholic
-led one, and Sarsfield, whose family was Roman Catholic, was selected to assist in this reorganisation. He went to Ireland with Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, who was appointed commander-in-chief by the King.
, and had a brush with some Scottish
soldiers in the service of the Prince of Orange
at Wincanton
.
When King James disbanded his army and fled to France
, Sarsfield accompanied him. In 1689 he returned to Ireland with the king. During the earlier part of the Williamite war in Ireland
he secured Connacht
for the Jacobites
. The King, who is said to have described him as a brave fellow who had no head, promoted him to the rank of brigadier, and then to major-general, with some reluctance.
Sarsfield sat in the 1689 "Patriot Parliament
" as a member for Dublin County
.
It was not until after the Battle of the Boyne
(1 July 1690), and during the Siege of Limerick (1690)
, that Sarsfield became prominent as a leader. He captured a convoy of military stores and artillery at Ballyneety, near Pallasgreen
between Limerick
and Tipperary
, in a raid apparently guided by a rapparee
known as 'Galloping Hogan'. This delayed the siege of the town until the winter rains forced the English to retire.
This achievement was said by the Duke of Berwick
to have turned Sarsfield head and made him the popular hero of the war with the Irish. His generosity, his courage and his commanding height, had already commended him to the affection of the Irish. When the cause of King James was ruined in Ireland, Sarsfield arranged the Treaty of Limerick
and sailed to France on 22 December 1691, with many of his countrymen who entered the French service in what is known as the Flight of the Wild Geese
. During that year he was created Earl of Lucan
by King James.
Gilbert Burnet
, the contemporary historian, records Sarsfield as having told some English officers at Limerick, "As low as we are now, change but kings with us and we will fight it over again with you", as much in disgust with James' inaction as in admiration of William's generalship.
until he was mortally wounded at the battle of Landen
or Neerwinden, on 19 August 1693. He died two or three days after the battle, at Huy
, Belgium
, where he is buried in the grounds of St Martin's Church. A plaque on the wall of this church marks the approximate location of his grave. He was quoted as watching his lifeblood ebbing away, and saying "Oh, if only this were for Ireland".
, by whom he had one son, James Sarsfield, 2nd Earl of Lucan, who died childless in 1718. They also had one daughter, who married Theodor von Neuhoff. A maternal great-great-great-great-grandson was Michael Corcoran
. His widow remarried to the Duke of Berwick
. Patrick Sarsfield's great nephew, Charles Bingham had the title, Earl of Lucan
, re-created in 1795.
is named Sarsfield Bridge, along with the adjoining Sarsfield Street. Sarsfield Barracks is the army barracks of Limerick. Part of the route Sarsfield took for his daring attack on the Williamite siege train is marked out today, as "Sarsfield's Ride", and is a popular walking and cycling route through County Tipperary
, County Clare
and County Limerick
. A rock which overlooks the site of the attack is today named Sarsfield Rock, with a plaque commemorating the Irish victory. A figure of Patrick Sarsfield is on the coat of arms of County Limerick
. Sarsfield House in Limerick is an office block housing offices of the Revenue Commissioners.
A number of GAA
clubs around Ireland also bear his name. A fine portrait of Sarsfield by John Riley (1646–91) hangs in the National Gallery of Ireland
.
The town of Sarsfield
in eastern Ontario was named in honour of Patrick Sarsfield in 1874.
A part of the California
Army National Guard
, Bravo Company, 184th Infantry Regiment out of Dublin, California
was once called the "Sarsfield Grenadier Guards
" after the Irish leader when the unit was only composed of soldiers of either Irish birth or descent.
Earl of Lucan
Earl of Lucan was a title in the Peerage of Ireland which has been possessed by two related Irish families in creations of 1691 and 1795. The current holder is presumed to be Richard Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan, who vanished in 1974....
, Irish
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
Jacobite
Jacobitism
Jacobitism was the political movement in Britain dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, later the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Kingdom of Ireland...
and soldier, belonged to an Anglo-Norman
Old English (Ireland)
The Old English were the descendants of the settlers who came to Ireland from Wales, Normandy, and England after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169–71. Many of the Old English became assimilated into Irish society over the centuries...
family long settled in Ireland.
Background
Sarsfield was born in Lucan c. 1660. His father, Patrick Sarsfield, married Anne O'Moore, daughter of Rory (Roger) O'MooreRory (Roger) O'Moore
Rory O'Moore or Roger O'Moore , was an Irish noble and principal organizer of the Irish Rebellion of 1641.-Life:He belonged to an ancient Irish noble family claiming descent from the mythical Conall Cernach...
, who organized the Irish Rebellion of 1641
Irish Rebellion of 1641
The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup d'état by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for the Catholics living under English rule...
. The family was of Norman origin (by this time the origin was known as "Old English"
Old English (Ireland)
The Old English were the descendants of the settlers who came to Ireland from Wales, Normandy, and England after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169–71. Many of the Old English became assimilated into Irish society over the centuries...
) and possessed an estate with an income of £
Pound sterling
The pound sterling , commonly called the pound, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, its Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 pence...
2,000 a year. Patrick, who was a younger son, entered Dongan's Regiment of Foot on 6 February 1678.
In his early years he is known to have challenged Lord Grey
Thomas Grey, 2nd Earl of Stamford
Thomas Grey, 2nd Earl of Stamford PC was a British peer and politician.He was the only son of Thomas, Lord Grey of Groby, and inherited his title from his grandfather....
for a supposed reflection on the veracity of the Irish people (September 1681), and in the December of that year he was run through the body in a duel
Duel
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals, with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules.Duels in this form were chiefly practised in Early Modern Europe, with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period especially among...
in which he engaged as second.
In 1682-83 while in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
, Sarsfield took part in two abductions of heiresses
Bride kidnapping
Bride kidnapping, also known as marriage by abduction or marriage by capture, is a practice throughout history and around the world in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry...
. In May 1682 he helped his friend Captain Robert Clifford to abduct Ann Siderlin, a wealthy widow, and was considered lucky not to be prosecuted. Then he abducted Elizabeth Herbert, the widowed daughter of Lord Chandos
James Brydges, 8th Baron Chandos
James Brydges, 8th Baron Chandos was English Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire.A graduate of St John's College, Oxford Brydges became 3rd Baronet, of Wilton, Herefordshire in 1651 and 8th Baron Chandos of Sudeley in 1686 following the death of his relative William Brydges.Lord Chandos had...
, on his own account. Elizabeth refused to marry him, but agreed not to prosecute him in exchange for her freedom.
During the last years of the reign of Charles II
Charles II of England
Charles II was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland.Charles II's father, King Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War...
he saw service in the English regiments that were attached to the army of Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV , known as Louis the Great or the Sun King , was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of four and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days...
. The accession of James II
James II of England
James II & VII was King of England and King of Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685. He was the last Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland...
led to his return home.
He took part in the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion
Monmouth Rebellion
The Monmouth Rebellion,The Revolt of the West or The West Country rebellion of 1685, was an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England, King of Scots and King of Ireland at the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685. James II was a Roman Catholic, and some...
at the Battle of Sedgemoor
Battle of Sedgemoor
The Battle of Sedgemoor was fought on 6 July 1685 and took place at Westonzoyland near Bridgwater in Somerset, England.It was the final battle of the Monmouth Rebellion and followed a series of skirmishes around south west England between the forces of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth and the...
on 6 July 1685. In the following year, he was promoted to a colonelcy. King James had adopted the policy of remodelling the Irish army so as to turn it from a Protestant-led force to a Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
-led one, and Sarsfield, whose family was Roman Catholic, was selected to assist in this reorganisation. He went to Ireland with Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, who was appointed commander-in-chief by the King.
Williamite war 1689–1691
In 1688 the death of his elder brother, who had no son, put him in possession of the family estate, which didn't bring him much money while he was on the losing side of a civil war. When the king brought over a few Irish soldiers to coerce the English, Sarsfield came in command of them. As the king was deserted by his army there was no major battles, but Sarsfields soldiers were involved in a skirmish at ReadingBattle of Reading (1688)
The Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688 in Reading, Berkshire. It was the only substantial military action in England during the Glorious Revolution and ended in a decisive victory for forces loyal to William of Orange...
, and had a brush with some Scottish
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
soldiers in the service of the Prince of Orange
William III of England
William III & II was a sovereign Prince of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau by birth. From 1672 he governed as Stadtholder William III of Orange over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. From 1689 he reigned as William III over England and Ireland...
at Wincanton
Wincanton
Wincanton is a small town in south Somerset, southwest England. The town lies on the A303 road, the main route between London and South West England, and has some light industry...
.
When King James disbanded his army and fled to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Sarsfield accompanied him. In 1689 he returned to Ireland with the king. During the earlier part of the Williamite war in Ireland
Williamite war in Ireland
The Williamite War in Ireland—also called the Jacobite War in Ireland, the Williamite-Jacobite War in Ireland and in Irish as Cogadh an Dá Rí —was a conflict between Catholic King James II and Protestant King William of Orange over who would be King of England, Scotland and Ireland...
he secured Connacht
Connacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
for the Jacobites
Jacobitism
Jacobitism was the political movement in Britain dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, later the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Kingdom of Ireland...
. The King, who is said to have described him as a brave fellow who had no head, promoted him to the rank of brigadier, and then to major-general, with some reluctance.
Sarsfield sat in the 1689 "Patriot Parliament
Patriot Parliament
The Patriot Parliament is the name given to the session of the Irish Parliament called by King James II of Ireland during the War of the Two Kings in 1689. The parliament met in one session, from 7 May 1689 to 20 July 1689, and was the only session of the Irish Parliament under King James II.The...
" as a member for Dublin County
Dublin County (Parliament of Ireland constituency)
Dublin County was a constituency represented in the Irish House of Commons to 1801.-History:In the Patriot Parliament of 1689 summoned by King James II, Dublin County was represented with two members.-1692–1801:...
.
It was not until after the Battle of the Boyne
Battle of the Boyne
The Battle of the Boyne was fought in 1690 between two rival claimants of the English, Scottish and Irish thronesthe Catholic King James and the Protestant King William across the River Boyne near Drogheda on the east coast of Ireland...
(1 July 1690), and during the Siege of Limerick (1690)
Siege of Limerick (1690)
Limerick, a city in western Ireland, was besieged twice in the Williamite War in Ireland, 1689-1691. On the first of these occasions, in August to September 1690, its Jacobite defenders retreated to the city after their defeat at the Battle of the Boyne...
, that Sarsfield became prominent as a leader. He captured a convoy of military stores and artillery at Ballyneety, near Pallasgreen
Pallasgreen
Pallasgreen or Pallasgrean is a village in East County Limerick, situated on the Limerick–Tipperary N24 road. The name means "the Stockade of Grian," referring to an ancient Irish Goddess of Love, whose is associated with the a nearby hill of Nicker.Just a short distance down the road is the...
between Limerick
Limerick
Limerick is the third largest city in the Republic of Ireland, and the principal city of County Limerick and Ireland's Mid-West Region. It is the fifth most populous city in all of Ireland. When taking the extra-municipal suburbs into account, Limerick is the third largest conurbation in the...
and Tipperary
Tipperary
Tipperary is a town and a civil parish in South Tipperary in Ireland. Its population was 4,415 at the 2006 census. It is also an ecclesiastical parish in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel and Emly, and is in the historical barony of Clanwilliam....
, in a raid apparently guided by a rapparee
Rapparee
Rapparees were Irish guerrilla fighters who operated on the Jacobite side during the 1690s Williamite war in Ireland. Subsequently the name was also given to bandits and highwaymen in Ireland - many former guerrillas having turned to crime after the war was over...
known as 'Galloping Hogan'. This delayed the siege of the town until the winter rains forced the English to retire.
This achievement was said by the Duke of Berwick
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, 1st Duke of Fitz-James, 1st Duke of Liria and Jérica was an Anglo-French military leader, illegitimate son of King James II of England by Arabella Churchill, sister of the 1st Duke of Marlborough...
to have turned Sarsfield head and made him the popular hero of the war with the Irish. His generosity, his courage and his commanding height, had already commended him to the affection of the Irish. When the cause of King James was ruined in Ireland, Sarsfield arranged the Treaty of Limerick
Treaty of Limerick
The Treaty of Limerick ended the Williamite war in Ireland between the Jacobites and the supporters of William of Orange. It concluded the Siege of Limerick. The treaty really consisted of two treaties which were signed on 3 October 1691. Reputedly they were signed on the Treaty Stone, an...
and sailed to France on 22 December 1691, with many of his countrymen who entered the French service in what is known as the Flight of the Wild Geese
Flight of the Wild Geese
The Flight of the Wild Geese refers to the departure of an Irish Jacobite army under the command of Patrick Sarsfield from Ireland to France, as agreed in the Treaty of Limerick on October 3, 1691, following the end of the Williamite War in Ireland...
. During that year he was created Earl of Lucan
Earl of Lucan
Earl of Lucan was a title in the Peerage of Ireland which has been possessed by two related Irish families in creations of 1691 and 1795. The current holder is presumed to be Richard Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan, who vanished in 1974....
by King James.
Gilbert Burnet
Gilbert Burnet
Gilbert Burnet was a Scottish theologian and historian, and Bishop of Salisbury. He was fluent in Dutch, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Burnet was respected as a cleric, a preacher, and an academic, as well as a writer and historian...
, the contemporary historian, records Sarsfield as having told some English officers at Limerick, "As low as we are now, change but kings with us and we will fight it over again with you", as much in disgust with James' inaction as in admiration of William's generalship.
Death
He received a commission as lieutenant-general (maréchal-de-camp) from King Louis XIV and fought with distinction in FlandersFlanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
until he was mortally wounded at the battle of Landen
Battle of Landen
The Battle of Landen , in the current Belgian province of Flemish Brabant, was a battle in the Nine Years' War, fought in present-day Belgium on 29 July 1693 between the French army of Marshal Luxembourg and the Allied army of King William III of England...
or Neerwinden, on 19 August 1693. He died two or three days after the battle, at Huy
Huy
Huy is a municipality of Belgium. It lies in the country's Walloon Region and Province of Liege. Huy lies along the river Meuse, at the mouth of the small river Hoyoux. It is in the sillon industriel, the former industrial backbone of Wallonia, home to about two-thirds of the Walloon population...
, Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
, where he is buried in the grounds of St Martin's Church. A plaque on the wall of this church marks the approximate location of his grave. He was quoted as watching his lifeblood ebbing away, and saying "Oh, if only this were for Ireland".
Family
He married Lady Honora Burke (or de Burgh), daughter of John Burke, 9th Earl of ClanricardeJohn Burke, 9th Earl of Clanricarde
John Burke, 9th Earl of Clanricarde was an Irish peer.Burke succeeded his brother Richard. He was created Baron Bophin in 1689 and commanded a foot regiment as its colonel during the Williamite War in Ireland. He was taken prisoner at the Battle of Aughrim in 1691 and outlawed...
, by whom he had one son, James Sarsfield, 2nd Earl of Lucan, who died childless in 1718. They also had one daughter, who married Theodor von Neuhoff. A maternal great-great-great-great-grandson was Michael Corcoran
Michael Corcoran
Michael Corcoran was an Irish American general in the Union Army during the American Civil War and a close confidant of President Abraham Lincoln. As its colonel, he led the 69th New York regiment to Washington, D.C. and was one of the first to serve in the defense of Washington by building Fort...
. His widow remarried to the Duke of Berwick
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, 1st Duke of Fitz-James, 1st Duke of Liria and Jérica was an Anglo-French military leader, illegitimate son of King James II of England by Arabella Churchill, sister of the 1st Duke of Marlborough...
. Patrick Sarsfield's great nephew, Charles Bingham had the title, Earl of Lucan
Earl of Lucan
Earl of Lucan was a title in the Peerage of Ireland which has been possessed by two related Irish families in creations of 1691 and 1795. The current holder is presumed to be Richard Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan, who vanished in 1974....
, re-created in 1795.
Legacy
Patrick Sarsfield is well-recognised in County Limerick. One of the three main road bridges in LimerickLimerick
Limerick is the third largest city in the Republic of Ireland, and the principal city of County Limerick and Ireland's Mid-West Region. It is the fifth most populous city in all of Ireland. When taking the extra-municipal suburbs into account, Limerick is the third largest conurbation in the...
is named Sarsfield Bridge, along with the adjoining Sarsfield Street. Sarsfield Barracks is the army barracks of Limerick. Part of the route Sarsfield took for his daring attack on the Williamite siege train is marked out today, as "Sarsfield's Ride", and is a popular walking and cycling route through County Tipperary
County Tipperary
County Tipperary is a county of Ireland. It is located in the province of Munster and is named after the town of Tipperary. The area of the county does not have a single local authority; local government is split between two authorities. In North Tipperary, part of the Mid-West Region, local...
, County Clare
County Clare
-History:There was a Neolithic civilisation in the Clare area — the name of the peoples is unknown, but the Prehistoric peoples left evidence behind in the form of ancient dolmen; single-chamber megalithic tombs, usually consisting of three or more upright stones...
and County Limerick
County Limerick
It is thought that humans had established themselves in the Lough Gur area of the county as early as 3000 BC, while megalithic remains found at Duntryleague date back further to 3500 BC...
. A rock which overlooks the site of the attack is today named Sarsfield Rock, with a plaque commemorating the Irish victory. A figure of Patrick Sarsfield is on the coat of arms of County Limerick
County Limerick
It is thought that humans had established themselves in the Lough Gur area of the county as early as 3000 BC, while megalithic remains found at Duntryleague date back further to 3500 BC...
. Sarsfield House in Limerick is an office block housing offices of the Revenue Commissioners.
A number of GAA
Gaelic Athletic Association
The Gaelic Athletic Association is an amateur Irish and international cultural and sporting organisation focused primarily on promoting Gaelic games, which include the traditional Irish sports of hurling, camogie, Gaelic football, handball and rounders...
clubs around Ireland also bear his name. A fine portrait of Sarsfield by John Riley (1646–91) hangs in the National Gallery of Ireland
National Gallery of Ireland
The National Gallery of Ireland houses the Irish national collection of Irish and European art. It is located in the centre of Dublin with one entrance on Merrion Square, beside Leinster House, and another on Clare Street. It was founded in 1854 and opened its doors ten years later...
.
The town of Sarsfield
Sarsfield, Ontario
Sarsfield, Ontario is a village in the east portion of the City of Ottawa in the former township of Cumberland.The first residents of Sarsfield were mostly French-Canadians from Lower Canada. In 1854, families began to establish in the Sarsfield region, such as the Potvin's, the St-Denis', the...
in eastern Ontario was named in honour of Patrick Sarsfield in 1874.
A part of the California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
Army National Guard
Army National Guard
Established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U.S. Code, the Army National Guard is part of the National Guard and is divided up into subordinate units stationed in each of the 50 states, three territories and the District of Columbia operating under their respective governors...
, Bravo Company, 184th Infantry Regiment out of Dublin, California
Dublin, California
Dublin is a suburban city of the East Bay region of Alameda County, California, United States. Located along the north side of Interstate 580 at the intersection with Interstate 680, roughly east of Hayward, west of Livermore and north of San Jose, it was named after the city of Dublin in...
was once called the "Sarsfield Grenadier Guards
Sarsfield Grenadier Guards
The Sarsfield Grenadier Guards were a military company from California in the nineteenth century, mustered on July 29, 1870, in Sacramento. It was named after the Irish Jacobite Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan...
" after the Irish leader when the unit was only composed of soldiers of either Irish birth or descent.
Further reading
- See J Todhunter, Life of Patrick Sarsfield (London, 1895).
- See Randal McDonnell, My Sword for Sarsfield (W. Tempest, Dundalgan Press, Dundalk, 1920).