Peter I of Brazil
Encyclopedia
Dom
Pedro I of Brazil (English: Peter I, 12 October 1798 – 24 September 1834), nicknamed "the Liberator" and "the Soldier-King", was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil and also King of Portugal as Pedro IV, having reigned for eight years in Brazil and two months in Portugal.
near Lisbon
, Portugal
. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara
, and his full name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific "Dom
" (Lord
) from birth.
Through his father, Prince Dom João (later King Dom João VI
), Pedro was a member of the House of Braganza
(Portuguese: Bragança) and a grandson of King Dom Pedro III
and Queen Dona (Lady) Maria I of Portugal
, who were uncle and niece as well as husband and wife. His mother, Doña Carlota Joaquina, was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV
of Spain. The marriage of Pedro's parents was an unhappy one. Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman, who always sought to advance Spain's interests, even to the detriment of Portugal's. Reputedly unfaithful to her husband, she went as far as to plot his overthrow, in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles.
As the second eldest son, Pedro only became his father's heir and Prince of Beira
upon the death of his elder brother António in 1801. Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of Queen Maria I (his mother), ever since she was declared incurably insane in 1792. By 1802, Pedro's parents were estranged, with João living in the Mafra National Palace
and Carlota Joaquina in the Palace of Ramalhão. Pedro and his siblings lived far away from both their father and mother, residing in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I. The young prince only saw his parents during state occasions that took place at Queluz.
, capital of the Viceroyalty of Brazil
, then Portugal's largest and wealthiest colony, in March 1808. During the voyage, Pedro was observed either reading Virgil
's Aeneid
or conversing with the ship's crew and picking up navigation
al skills. In Brazil, after a brief stay in the City Palace (which would later become the Imperial Palace
), Pedro settled with his father and his younger brother Miguel in the Paço de São Cristóvão
(Palace of Saint Christopher). Although never on intimate terms with his father, Pedro loved him and resented the constant humiliation he suffered at the hands of Carlota Joaquina. As an adult, Pedro would openly call his own mother, for whom he held only feelings of contempt, a "bitch".
Early experiences of betrayal, coldness and neglect had a great impact on the formation of Pedro's character. A modicum of stability during his childhood was provided by his aia (governess), Dona Maria Genoveva do Rêgo e Matos, whom he loved as a mother, and by his aio (supervisor) Friar António de Arrábida, who became his mentor. Both were in charge of Pedro's upbringing and attempted to furnish him with a suitable education. His instruction encompassed a broad array of subjects that included mathematics
, political economy
, logic
, history
and geography
. He read the works of diverse authors, such as Voltaire
, Benjamin Constant
, Gaetano Filangieri
and Edmund Burke
. He learned to speak and write not only in Portuguese
, but also Latin
and French
. He could write, though not correctly speak, English
and he understood German
. Even later on, as an emperor, Pedro would devote at least two hours of each day to study and reading.
Despite the breadth of Pedro's instruction, his education proved lacking. Historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa said that Pedro "was without a shadow of doubt intelligent, quick-witted, [and] perspicacious." However, historian Roderick J. Barman relates that he was by nature "too ebullient, too erratic, and too emotional". He remained impulsive and never learned to exercise self-control or to assess the consequences of his decisions and adapt his outlook to changes in situations. His father never allowed anyone to discipline him. While Pedro's schedule dictated two hours of study each day, he sometimes circumvented the routine by dismissing his instructors so that he could engage in activities which he found more interesting. Charles Napier, who fought under Pedro's banner in the 1830s remarked that "his good qualities were his own; his bad owing to want of education; and no man was more sensible of that defect than himself."
, became a fine horseman and an excellent farrier
. On horseback, he and his brother Miguel "were fearless and indefatigable, risking themselves and their mounts in chases through woods and over unknown terrain, baiting bulls, pursuing wild animals, riding for hours without pause in all kinds of weather and after dark." Also, he displayed a talent for drawing and handicrafts, and settled his own workshop where he worked on wood carving and furniture making.
Pedro had a taste for music which he inherited from his Braganza ancestors, and under the guidance of Marcos Portugal
the prince became an able composer. With a good singing voice, Pedro was proficient with the flute
, trombone
, harpsicord, basson, violin
and guitar
, the latter which he used to play popular songs and dances such as the lundu, modinha
and fado
. His restless spirit made him search for adventures, which prompted him to disguise as a traveller and frequent taverns in Rio de Janeiro's underground. He rarely drank alcohol, but was an incorrigible womaniser. The earliest known lasting affair he had was with a French dancer called Noémi Thierry. His father, who had acceded to the throne as João VI, sent Thierry away to avoid putting in jeopardy the prince's betrothal to Archduchess Maria Leopoldina
, daughter of Emperor Franz I of Austria (formely Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor
).
On 13 May 1817, Pedro married by proxy Maria Leopoldina. When she arrived on Rio de Janeiro on 5 November, she fell instantly in love with Pedro, who was far prettier and charming than she was led to expect. After "years under a tropical sun, his complexion was still light, his cheeks rosy." The 19-year-old prince was handsome, a little above the average height, had bright dark eyes and brown hair. "His good appearence", said historian Neill Macaulay, "owned much to his bearing, proud and erect even at an awkward age, and his grooming, which was impeccable. Habitually neat and clean, he had taken to the Brazilian custom of bathing often." The Nuptial Mass, with the ratification of the vows previously taken by proxy, occurred on the following day, 6 November. Several children were born from this marriage: Maria (later Queen Dona Maria II of Portugal), Miguel
, João
, Januária, Paula
, Francisca
and Pedro (later Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil
).
John VI returned to Lisbon in late April 1821 after the defeat of Napoleon, leaving his 22-year-old son Prince Pedro as regent in Rio. He did not leave empty handed, however; he took from Rio de Janeiro to Portugal 50 million cruzados. His father never allowed him have any participation on state affairs, not even to take part in his Council of State
, of which even Pedro's elder sister Dona Maria Teresa
was a member. Most of the privileges that had been accorded to Brazil during the royal family's absence from Europe were rescinded, sparking the ire of local nationalists. Inspired by the newly-won independence of Spain's former South American colonies, Brazilian patriotism and nationalist sentiment grew, and Pedro sided with the nationalist element. Before his departure for Portugal, John VI had presciently advised Pedro to declare Brazil independent and take the throne for himself in the event of revolt rather than allow a usurper to take over the country. This way there would still be a Portuguese king in power in Brazil. The Brazilian elite were scared of recolonization, the loss of control over the provinces, and potential revolution in the event of the regent's departure. When pressed by the Portuguese Cortes to return to Europe, Pedro refused. His official declaration of permanence on 9 January 1822 is known today in Brazil as the Dia do Fico (I Will Remain Day). For that, he was demoted from regent to a mere representative of the Lisbon court in Brazil. This news reached him on 7 September 1822, when he had just arrived in São Paulo, from a visit to the port of Santos. On the banks of the Ipiranga River
, he unsheathed his sword, removed the blue and white Portuguese shield from his coat, and declared "Independence or death!" This later became his famous speech O grito do Ipiranga (The Cry of Ipiranga). By the year's end, Pedro had officially declared Brazil an independent constitutional monarchy with himself as monarch. He was proclaimed Emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822, his 24th birthday, and was crowned on 1 December.
The early years of Brazilian independence were difficult. Dom Pedro I assumed the title of emperor instead of king to underline the diversity of the Brazilian provinces. The Napoleonic
concept of Empire
as a more modern and progressive form of monarchy embodying rejection of the Ancien Régime was also useful in uniting the relatively cosmopolitan society of Rio de Janeiro with the more conservative, patriarchal stance held in the rest of the country.
In early 1823, the first problem confronting Pedro I was drafting a constitution. Brazil was divided between the Brazilian Party led by José Bonifácio, which included the landed aristocracy who favored a constitutional monarchy, and the Portuguese party which included the commercial class, office holders and families of recent Portuguese origin, who wanted an absolutist monarchy. In 1822, during the struggle for independence, Pedro I had considered himself a liberal and had promised Brazil a constitution. He soon appeared to forget his liberal ideals by enacting a Constitution that gave him substantial power. This was seen as necessary to keep control of the interior, particularly in the feudal North, and to prevent the instability and democratic fractioning that characterized other areas of Latin America during this time. The Brazilian party dominated the assembly and refused to assent to so much power in the hands of the emperor. Conflict increased further after Muniz Tavares, a Brazilian assemblyman, attacked the Portuguese party, which he believed resented Brazilian independence. The Sentinella and the Tamoyo, two constitutionalist papers, were written to attack Portuguese born officials. In response to the dispute, Pedro dissolved the assembly on 11 November 1823. He exiled many assemblymen, including José Bonifácio, and jailed a few. Upholding his promise to provide a constitution, he then gathered a committee of ten who then ratified a new, but very similar, constitution on 25 March 1824. This rewritten constitution remained in effect until the end of the Brazilian empire in 1889.
The new constitution established a conservative, centralized monarchy with significant constitutional limitations and power-sharing. It sought to maintain stability and protect property. Powers were divided into executive, legislative, judiciary, and moderating branches. The legislative branch contained the Senate
and the Chamber of Deputies
, both of whose members were elected to power. Unlike the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate remained in office for life. The Council of State, or the judicial branch, consisted of a council of respected elders whom the emperor appointed for life and who exercised executive powers to issue judgments in important issues, such as war. The emperor held supremacy or moderating power. He could therefore veto all resolutions. He was also empowered to appoint a senator from a group of elected senators, appoint councils of state, pardon criminals, review judicial decisions, and replace elected deputies, presidents of provinces, ministers, bishops and senators. Pedro's failure to put the constitution in effect immediately, however, left many Brazilians suspicious that Pedro's support of a constitution was a ruse.
During 1824 and 1825, many Brazilians became opposed to the accumulated powers of the emperor and the unpopular provincial presidents he appointed. Secret opposition papers attacked the emperor, his ministers, his servants and his mistresses, in particular Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos
. Dissatisfaction climaxed with the revolt of liberal urban forces in Pernambuco
. Friar Joaquim do Amor Divino
(popularly known as "Frei Caneca") led a revolt in response to the appointment of an unpopular governor, Francisco Paes Barreto. In July 1824, Frei Caneca and Manuel de Carvalho sought to unite several republics in the formation of the Confederation of the Equator
. The Confederation failed to take hold and the emperor put many revolutionaries to death, including Frei Caneca.
The absolutist character of events in Rio raised concern in the mostly liberal Northeast. This region soon called for its own constituent assembly. But the movement was not a success because it was divided within itself on the issue of slavery and because Pedro hired British and French ships and mercenaries to repress them. Consequently, Britain underwrote much of the transition to Brazilian independence. Britain could also facilitate recognition from the international community, and Pedro sought this recognition of Brazil's independence. At first European nations were reluctant because of the hesitance of Portugal. The United States became the first to recognize its independence. By 1825 Britain, realizing the importance of Brazil's market, convinced Portugal to accept Brazil's independence. In exchange, Pedro agreed to repay a loan from Britain for the war between Portugal and Brazil. The loan implied that Pedro would inherit the Portuguese throne. He also signed a treaty with Britain, continuing the 15% import tariff and abolishing the slave trade within three years. The concessions to end slavery especially made Pedro I unpopular with the landed aristocracy, which constituted much of the Brazilian party.
Republican sentiment soared, and during the 1825 Cisplatine War with Argentina
, the Cisplatine province seceded to become Uruguay
. The war lasted for two years, and as a result Brazil suffered great military and financial devastation. While Pedro was visiting the troops in November and December 1826, Empress Leopoldina died after a miscarriage. Rumors spread that she had been poisoned by the Emperor's mistress, Domitila. Pamphlets were published accusing Pedro of imposing physical violence on her during her pregnancy, while having an affair with Domitila. Pedro resolved to marry again, and asked his father-in-law (Emporer Francis of Austria) for help in securing a bride. Gossip about Pedro's infidelity and the circumstances of Leopoldina's death damaged his reputation and Brazilian diplomats searching for a second wife were met with a round of refusals. Pedro and his officials discovered that the Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich actively worked to prevent any match as part of a policy to contain Pedro. In August 1829, Pedro agreed a marriage contract with a traditionally anti- Metternich family: the House of Beauharnais
. On 17 October 1829, Pedro married his second wife, Princess Amélie of Leuchtenberg, in Rio de Janeiro. Amélie was the daughter of Eugène de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg, and the granddaughter of the Empress Josephine.
Domestically, Pedro was accused of mismanaging financial affairs. During his reign, debt rose, inflation grew, the exchange rate sank, and the bank issued ineffective paper money which drove gold and silver out of circulation. The cost of living rose in the cities. British tariffs also troubled the elite and middle class, who demanded imported consumer goods. The production of tobacco, leather, cocoa, cotton, and even coffee declined. With the Portuguese still in control of most of the retail market, anti-Portuguese feelings mounted. The cumulative result of military, domestic and economic setbacks prompted most of the urban elite, who had been absolutists, to side with the liberals. Even the army, discontented with Portuguese commanders and military defeats, distanced itself from the emperor.
In the end, Dom Pedro's aspirations in Portugal cost him his rule in Brazil.
. Pedro's sister, Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal
, became regent. Miguel accepted this solution and distanced himself from the absolutists, some of whom staged a rebellion, failed, and fled to Spain.
In 1827, Miguel attempted to put a claim on the regency over Isabel Maria, although nobody accepted the suggestion out of fear of the absolutists. On 22 February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal, and four days later he took the oath to his brother and the charter and was installed as lieutenant-general. This loyalty did not last long. Miguel and his mother, Carlota Joaquina, immediately began to oust the liberals and demonstrations in favor of Pedro or the constitution were prohibited.
A group of exiled liberals landed at Porto from the British ship, the Belfast, and raised a rebellion. The rebellion failed and the senior liberals were forced to take refuge back on the Belfast, and leave again for England. Of all of Portuguese territory, only the Azores
remained faithful to Pedro, partly because the garrison stayed loyal. On 11 July 1828, Miguel was proclaimed king. The United States, Spain, Russia and the Holy See
recognized him as king. Great Britain and France protested against the illegal suppression of the constitution. In August 1829, Miguel sent a squadron of 22 ships to the Azores, which were controlled by Pedro. After a day of battle, the liberals under the Count of Vila Flor emerged victorious, taking hundreds of prisoners.
In the aftermath of a political crisis that followed the dismissal of his ministers, and amid a growing economic crisis, Pedro abdicated his throne in Brazil on 7 April 1831 in favor of his son Pedro II, who was only five at the time. José Bonifácio, who had returned from exile only months before, was appointed guardian of the new emperor and his siblings. Pedro I assumed the title "Duke of Braganza", and sailed for Europe. In Britain and France he began to organize a military expedition against his brother Miguel.
, the liberals fought off the Miguelists, and withdrew back into Porto. In the subsequent weeks, the absolutists besieged the city. The siege of Porto
lasted for a year; assaults by the Miguelists and attempted break-outs by the liberals were repulsed. Pedro took a risk and in June 1833 sent an expedition by sea to the ill-defended Algarve. This proved a war winning strategy as although the siege of Porto continued it became a secondary theatre of operations. Within a week, the Miguelist fleet was defeated at the battle of Cape Saint Vincent
by the British admiral Charles Napier. In July 1833, Pedro arrived in Lisbon. This gave the liberals both of Portugal's major cities, Lisbon and Porto, where they commanded a sizeable following among the middle classes. In contrast, the absolutists controlled the rural areas, where they were supported by the aristocracy, and by a peasantry that was galvanized by the Church. Marshal Saldanha eventually broke the siege of Porto in August 1833, but by the end of the month Lisbon was under siege. Miguelist attacks on 5 and 14 September were repulsed; the liberal lines held. Saldanha broke the siege on 10 October 1833, and forced the Miguelists east toward Santarém
. Maria da Glória was proclaimed Queen, with Dom Pedro as Regent. Pedro dismissed Miguelist ministers and clergy and appropriated church property. In early 1834, Saldanha defeated Miguelist forces at the battles of Pernes and Almoster. Liberal forces were victorious at the battle of Asseiceira in May, and entered Santarém on 18 May 1834.
On 22 April 1834 the Quadruple Alliance
was drawn up. Portugal, Spain, Britain and France agreed to banish Dom Miguel from Portugal and Don Carlos
from Spain. Spain committed to keep troops in Portugal until the end of the Portuguese Liberal Wars
, Britain promised naval support for Dom Pedro and Isabella II of Spain
, and Portugal agreed to supply an auxiliary force for operations against Don Carlos in Spain. By 27 May 1834, Miguel's officers were unwilling to risk a final battle after nearly two years of warfare, despite still having 18,000 men in the ranks. Miguel was induced to seek terms of capitulation and by the Convention of Évora-Monte
renounced all claims to the throne of Portugal and agreed to go into exile. Maria II's betrothal to Miguel was annulled, and she married her stepmother's brother, Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg
.
Pedro had finally put his daughter Maria da Gloria back on the throne but this would be his last act. He died of tuberculosis
in Queluz
, the palace of his birth, aged 35 at 2:30 p.m. on 24 September 1834. In 1972, his remains were returned to Brazil and re-interred in the present Ipiranga Museum
.
As Brazilian Emperor his full style and title were: "His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil". After his abdication the style "His Imperial Majesty the Duke of Braganza" was used.
As Portuguese King his full style and title were: "His Most Faithful Majesty Dom Pedro IV, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc."
As King Pedro IV, he was Grand Master (Sovereign) of the following Portuguese Orders:
After having abdicated the Portuguese crown:
He was a recipient of the following foreign honors:
By his second wife, Amélie de Beauharnais, Duchess of Leuchtenberg (31 July 1812 – 26 January 1873):
His illegitimate children included three by his best known lover, Domitila, Marchioness of Santos
:
He had other illegitimate children, including a son Rodrigo (born in November 1823) with Domitila's sister Maria Bendita, baroness of Sorocaba, and a son with Frenchwoman Clémence Saisset. His lovers were reputed to include the wife of French naturalist Aimé Bonpland
, ballerina Noemí Valençay (also known as Noémi Thierry), and the wife of General Jorge de Avilez, commander of the Rio garrison, among many others.
Dom (title)
Dom is a title of respect prefixed to the given name. It derives from Latin Dominus.It is used in English for certain Benedictine and Carthusian monks, and for members of certain communities of Canons Regular. Examples include Benedictine monks of the English Benedictine Congregation...
Pedro I of Brazil (English: Peter I, 12 October 1798 – 24 September 1834), nicknamed "the Liberator" and "the Soldier-King", was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil and also King of Portugal as Pedro IV, having reigned for eight years in Brazil and two months in Portugal.
Birth
Pedro was born on 12 October 1798, around 8:00 a.m., at the Queluz National PalaceQueluz National Palace
The Queluz National Palace is a Portuguese 18th-century palace located at Queluz, a freguesia of the modern-day Sintra Municipality, in the Lisbon District. One of the last great Rococo buildings to be designed in Europe, the palace was conceived as a summer retreat for Dom Pedro of Braganza,...
near Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
, Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara
Peter of Alcantara
Saint Peter of Alcántara, O.F.M. was a Spanish Franciscan friar.- Biography :He was born at Alcántara, Province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain. His father, Peter Garavito, was the governor of Alcántara, and his mother was of the noble family of Sanabia...
, and his full name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific "Dom
Dom (title)
Dom is a title of respect prefixed to the given name. It derives from Latin Dominus.It is used in English for certain Benedictine and Carthusian monks, and for members of certain communities of Canons Regular. Examples include Benedictine monks of the English Benedictine Congregation...
" (Lord
Lord
Lord is a title with various meanings. It can denote a prince or a feudal superior . The title today is mostly used in connection with the peerage of the United Kingdom or its predecessor countries, although some users of the title do not themselves hold peerages, and use it 'by courtesy'...
) from birth.
Through his father, Prince Dom João (later King Dom João VI
John VI of Portugal
John VI John VI John VI (full name: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael; (13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826) was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (later changed to just King of Portugal and the Algarves, after Brazil was recognized...
), Pedro was a member of the House of Braganza
House of Braganza
The Most Serene House of Braganza , an important Portuguese noble family, ruled the Kingdom of Portugal and its colonial Empire, from 1640 to 1910...
(Portuguese: Bragança) and a grandson of King Dom Pedro III
Peter III of Portugal
Peter III became King of the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves by the accession of his wife and niece Queen Maria I in 1777, and co-reigned alongside her until his death.-Biography:...
and Queen Dona (Lady) Maria I of Portugal
Maria I of Portugal
Maria I was Queen regnant of Portugal and the Algarves from 1777 until her death. Known as Maria the Pious , or Maria the Mad , she was the first undisputed Queen regnant of Portugal...
, who were uncle and niece as well as husband and wife. His mother, Doña Carlota Joaquina, was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV
Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV was King of Spain from 14 December 1788 until his abdication on 19 March 1808.-Early life:...
of Spain. The marriage of Pedro's parents was an unhappy one. Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman, who always sought to advance Spain's interests, even to the detriment of Portugal's. Reputedly unfaithful to her husband, she went as far as to plot his overthrow, in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles.
As the second eldest son, Pedro only became his father's heir and Prince of Beira
Prince of Beira
Prince of Beira is a title in Portugal, normally given to the second heirs to the throne and/or to the eldest daughter of the monarch. It was thus attributed to persons of the royal family especially esteemed by the sovereign...
upon the death of his elder brother António in 1801. Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of Queen Maria I (his mother), ever since she was declared incurably insane in 1792. By 1802, Pedro's parents were estranged, with João living in the Mafra National Palace
Mafra National Palace
The Mafra National Palace is a monumental Baroque and Italianized Neoclassical palace-monastery located in Mafra, Portugal, some 28 kilometres from Lisbon. Its dimensions are so huge that it dwarfs the city...
and Carlota Joaquina in the Palace of Ramalhão. Pedro and his siblings lived far away from both their father and mother, residing in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I. The young prince only saw his parents during state occasions that took place at Queluz.
Education
In late November 1807, when Pedro was nine, the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon. Pedro and his family arrived in Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
, capital of the Viceroyalty of Brazil
Colonial Brazil
In the history of Brazil, Colonial Brazil, officially the Viceroyalty of Brazil comprises the period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to kingdom alongside Portugal as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.During the over 300 years...
, then Portugal's largest and wealthiest colony, in March 1808. During the voyage, Pedro was observed either reading Virgil
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...
's Aeneid
Aeneid
The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It is composed of roughly 10,000 lines in dactylic hexameter...
or conversing with the ship's crew and picking up navigation
Navigation
Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks...
al skills. In Brazil, after a brief stay in the City Palace (which would later become the Imperial Palace
Paço Imperial
The Paço Imperial , or Imperial Palace, is a historic building in the center of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Paço Imperial was built in the 18th century to serve as residence for the governors of colonial Brazil. From 1808, it was used as a royal residence by King John VI of Portugal as...
), Pedro settled with his father and his younger brother Miguel in the Paço de São Cristóvão
Paço de São Cristóvão
Paço de São Cristóvão is a palace located in the Quinta da Boa Vista park in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is the former residence of the Emperors of Brazil...
(Palace of Saint Christopher). Although never on intimate terms with his father, Pedro loved him and resented the constant humiliation he suffered at the hands of Carlota Joaquina. As an adult, Pedro would openly call his own mother, for whom he held only feelings of contempt, a "bitch".
Early experiences of betrayal, coldness and neglect had a great impact on the formation of Pedro's character. A modicum of stability during his childhood was provided by his aia (governess), Dona Maria Genoveva do Rêgo e Matos, whom he loved as a mother, and by his aio (supervisor) Friar António de Arrábida, who became his mentor. Both were in charge of Pedro's upbringing and attempted to furnish him with a suitable education. His instruction encompassed a broad array of subjects that included mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
, political economy
Political economy
Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy...
, logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
, history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
and geography
Geography
Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...
. He read the works of diverse authors, such as Voltaire
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet , better known by the pen name Voltaire , was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, free trade and separation of church and state...
, Benjamin Constant
Benjamin Constant
Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque was a Swiss-born French nobleman, thinker, writer and politician.-Biography:...
, Gaetano Filangieri
Gaetano Filangieri
Gaetano Filangieri , Italian jurist and philosopher, was born in San Sebastiano al Vesuvio, a country near Naples....
and Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke PC was an Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party....
. He learned to speak and write not only in Portuguese
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
, but also Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
and French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
. He could write, though not correctly speak, English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
and he understood German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
. Even later on, as an emperor, Pedro would devote at least two hours of each day to study and reading.
Despite the breadth of Pedro's instruction, his education proved lacking. Historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa said that Pedro "was without a shadow of doubt intelligent, quick-witted, [and] perspicacious." However, historian Roderick J. Barman relates that he was by nature "too ebullient, too erratic, and too emotional". He remained impulsive and never learned to exercise self-control or to assess the consequences of his decisions and adapt his outlook to changes in situations. His father never allowed anyone to discipline him. While Pedro's schedule dictated two hours of study each day, he sometimes circumvented the routine by dismissing his instructors so that he could engage in activities which he found more interesting. Charles Napier, who fought under Pedro's banner in the 1830s remarked that "his good qualities were his own; his bad owing to want of education; and no man was more sensible of that defect than himself."
First marriage
The prince found joy not in classrooms, but in activities that required physical skills. In Santa Cruz farm, owned by his father, Pedro trained untamed horsesHorse training
Horse training refers to a variety of practices that teach horses to perform certain behaviors when asked to do so by humans. Horses are trained to be manageable by humans for everyday care as well as for equestrian activities from horse racing to therapeutic horseback riding for people with...
, became a fine horseman and an excellent farrier
Farrier
A farrier is a specialist in equine hoof care, including the trimming and balancing of horses' hooves and the placing of shoes on their hooves...
. On horseback, he and his brother Miguel "were fearless and indefatigable, risking themselves and their mounts in chases through woods and over unknown terrain, baiting bulls, pursuing wild animals, riding for hours without pause in all kinds of weather and after dark." Also, he displayed a talent for drawing and handicrafts, and settled his own workshop where he worked on wood carving and furniture making.
Pedro had a taste for music which he inherited from his Braganza ancestors, and under the guidance of Marcos Portugal
Marcos Portugal
Marcos António da Fonseca Portugal was a Portuguese classical composer, who achieved great international fame for his operas in Italian....
the prince became an able composer. With a good singing voice, Pedro was proficient with the flute
Flute
The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening...
, trombone
Trombone
The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. Like all brass instruments, sound is produced when the player’s vibrating lips cause the air column inside the instrument to vibrate...
, harpsicord, basson, violin
Violin
The violin is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which includes the viola and cello....
and guitar
Guitar
The guitar is a plucked string instrument, usually played with fingers or a pick. The guitar consists of a body with a rigid neck to which the strings, generally six in number, are attached. Guitars are traditionally constructed of various woods and strung with animal gut or, more recently, with...
, the latter which he used to play popular songs and dances such as the lundu, modinha
Modinha
A modinha is a type of sentimental love song. The modinha is of uncertain origin, but it may have evolved in either Brazil or Portugal. Around the end of 18th Century, Domingos Caldas Barbosa wrote a series of modinhas that were extremely popular, especially in salons, and so can be termed salon...
and fado
Fado
Fado is a music genre which can be traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier origins. Fado historian and scholar, Rui Vieira Nery, states that "the only reliable information on the history of Fado was orally transmitted and goes back to the 1820s and 1830s at best...
. His restless spirit made him search for adventures, which prompted him to disguise as a traveller and frequent taverns in Rio de Janeiro's underground. He rarely drank alcohol, but was an incorrigible womaniser. The earliest known lasting affair he had was with a French dancer called Noémi Thierry. His father, who had acceded to the throne as João VI, sent Thierry away to avoid putting in jeopardy the prince's betrothal to Archduchess Maria Leopoldina
Maria Leopoldina of Austria
Maria Leopoldina of Austria was an archduchess of Austria, Empress consort of Brazil and queen consort of Portugal....
, daughter of Emperor Franz I of Austria (formely Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor
Francis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he dissolved the Empire after the disastrous defeat of the Third Coalition by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz...
).
On 13 May 1817, Pedro married by proxy Maria Leopoldina. When she arrived on Rio de Janeiro on 5 November, she fell instantly in love with Pedro, who was far prettier and charming than she was led to expect. After "years under a tropical sun, his complexion was still light, his cheeks rosy." The 19-year-old prince was handsome, a little above the average height, had bright dark eyes and brown hair. "His good appearence", said historian Neill Macaulay, "owned much to his bearing, proud and erect even at an awkward age, and his grooming, which was impeccable. Habitually neat and clean, he had taken to the Brazilian custom of bathing often." The Nuptial Mass, with the ratification of the vows previously taken by proxy, occurred on the following day, 6 November. Several children were born from this marriage: Maria (later Queen Dona Maria II of Portugal), Miguel
Miguel, Prince of Beira
Infante Miguel of Portugal, Prince of Beira was the stillborn son of Portuguese heir to the throne Pedro, Prince of Brazil and Maria Leopoldina of Austria and was a member of the Braganza house.Prince Miguel was named thus, in honor of his father's younger brother Miguel of Portugal...
, João
João Carlos, Prince of Beira
Infante João Carlos of Portugal, Prince of Brazil was a Portuguese infante , son of heir to the throne Pedro, Prince of Brazil and Maria Leopoldina of Austria.-Ancestry:...
, Januária, Paula
Princess Paula of Brazil
Princess Paula of Brazil was a member of the Brazilian Imperial Family, the sixth daughter of Emperor Pedro I and Empress Leopoldina.-Biography:...
, Francisca
Princess Francisca of Brazil
Francisca of Brazil was a princess of Brazil. She was a daughter of Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal and his first wife Maria Leopoldina of Austria...
and Pedro (later Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil
Pedro II of Brazil
Dom Pedro II , nicknamed "the Magnanimous", was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the seventh child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of...
).
Leader of the Independence of Brazil
Privy council
A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the monarch's closest advisors to give confidential advice on...
, of which even Pedro's elder sister Dona Maria Teresa
Teresa, Princess of Beira
Infanta Maria Teresa of Portugal was the firstborn child of John VI of Portugal and Charlotte of Spain, and heir to the throne of Portugal between 1793 and 1795, until her short-lived brother António Pio was born.Maria Teresa Francisca de Assis Antónia Carlota Joana Josefa Xavier de Paula Micaela...
was a member. Most of the privileges that had been accorded to Brazil during the royal family's absence from Europe were rescinded, sparking the ire of local nationalists. Inspired by the newly-won independence of Spain's former South American colonies, Brazilian patriotism and nationalist sentiment grew, and Pedro sided with the nationalist element. Before his departure for Portugal, John VI had presciently advised Pedro to declare Brazil independent and take the throne for himself in the event of revolt rather than allow a usurper to take over the country. This way there would still be a Portuguese king in power in Brazil. The Brazilian elite were scared of recolonization, the loss of control over the provinces, and potential revolution in the event of the regent's departure. When pressed by the Portuguese Cortes to return to Europe, Pedro refused. His official declaration of permanence on 9 January 1822 is known today in Brazil as the Dia do Fico (I Will Remain Day). For that, he was demoted from regent to a mere representative of the Lisbon court in Brazil. This news reached him on 7 September 1822, when he had just arrived in São Paulo, from a visit to the port of Santos. On the banks of the Ipiranga River
Ipiranga Brook
The Ipiranga Brook is a river of São Paulo state in southeastern Brazil, historically known for has been the place where Dom Pedro I declared the independence of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Its name came from the Tupi words: "Y", which means water or river,...
, he unsheathed his sword, removed the blue and white Portuguese shield from his coat, and declared "Independence or death!" This later became his famous speech O grito do Ipiranga (The Cry of Ipiranga). By the year's end, Pedro had officially declared Brazil an independent constitutional monarchy with himself as monarch. He was proclaimed Emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822, his 24th birthday, and was crowned on 1 December.
Reign in Brazil
Napoleon I of France
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
concept of Empire
Empire
The term empire derives from the Latin imperium . Politically, an empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples united and ruled either by a monarch or an oligarchy....
as a more modern and progressive form of monarchy embodying rejection of the Ancien Régime was also useful in uniting the relatively cosmopolitan society of Rio de Janeiro with the more conservative, patriarchal stance held in the rest of the country.
In early 1823, the first problem confronting Pedro I was drafting a constitution. Brazil was divided between the Brazilian Party led by José Bonifácio, which included the landed aristocracy who favored a constitutional monarchy, and the Portuguese party which included the commercial class, office holders and families of recent Portuguese origin, who wanted an absolutist monarchy. In 1822, during the struggle for independence, Pedro I had considered himself a liberal and had promised Brazil a constitution. He soon appeared to forget his liberal ideals by enacting a Constitution that gave him substantial power. This was seen as necessary to keep control of the interior, particularly in the feudal North, and to prevent the instability and democratic fractioning that characterized other areas of Latin America during this time. The Brazilian party dominated the assembly and refused to assent to so much power in the hands of the emperor. Conflict increased further after Muniz Tavares, a Brazilian assemblyman, attacked the Portuguese party, which he believed resented Brazilian independence. The Sentinella and the Tamoyo, two constitutionalist papers, were written to attack Portuguese born officials. In response to the dispute, Pedro dissolved the assembly on 11 November 1823. He exiled many assemblymen, including José Bonifácio, and jailed a few. Upholding his promise to provide a constitution, he then gathered a committee of ten who then ratified a new, but very similar, constitution on 25 March 1824. This rewritten constitution remained in effect until the end of the Brazilian empire in 1889.
The new constitution established a conservative, centralized monarchy with significant constitutional limitations and power-sharing. It sought to maintain stability and protect property. Powers were divided into executive, legislative, judiciary, and moderating branches. The legislative branch contained the Senate
Senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature or parliament. There have been many such bodies in history, since senate means the assembly of the eldest and wiser members of the society and ruling class...
and the Chamber of Deputies
Chamber of Deputies of Brazil
The Chamber of Deputies of Brazil is a federal legislative body and the lower house of the National Congress of Brazil. As of 2006, the chamber comprises 513 deputies, who are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms...
, both of whose members were elected to power. Unlike the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate remained in office for life. The Council of State, or the judicial branch, consisted of a council of respected elders whom the emperor appointed for life and who exercised executive powers to issue judgments in important issues, such as war. The emperor held supremacy or moderating power. He could therefore veto all resolutions. He was also empowered to appoint a senator from a group of elected senators, appoint councils of state, pardon criminals, review judicial decisions, and replace elected deputies, presidents of provinces, ministers, bishops and senators. Pedro's failure to put the constitution in effect immediately, however, left many Brazilians suspicious that Pedro's support of a constitution was a ruse.
During 1824 and 1825, many Brazilians became opposed to the accumulated powers of the emperor and the unpopular provincial presidents he appointed. Secret opposition papers attacked the emperor, his ministers, his servants and his mistresses, in particular Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos
Domitila, Marchioness of Santos
Domitila de Castro do Canto e Melo , 1st Viscountess with designation as a Grandee, then 1st Marchioness of Santos, was a Brazilian noblewoman and the long-term mistress and favorite of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.The Regent of Brazil first met D...
. Dissatisfaction climaxed with the revolt of liberal urban forces in Pernambuco
Pernambuco
Pernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. To the north are the states of Paraíba and Ceará, to the west is Piauí, to the south are Alagoas and Bahia, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. There are about of beaches, some of the most beautiful in the...
. Friar Joaquim do Amor Divino
Frei Caneca
Joaquim da Silva Rabelo, later Frei Joaquim do Amor Divino Rabelo , commonly known as Frei Caneca , was a Brazilian religious leader, politician, and journalist who was involved in multiple revolts in Northeastern Brazil during the early 19th century.-Biography:Frei Caneca was the firstborn son of...
(popularly known as "Frei Caneca") led a revolt in response to the appointment of an unpopular governor, Francisco Paes Barreto. In July 1824, Frei Caneca and Manuel de Carvalho sought to unite several republics in the formation of the Confederation of the Equator
Confederation of the Equator
The Confederation of the Equator was a short-lived rebellion that occurred in the northeastern region of Brazil during that nation's struggle for independence from Portugal. The secessionist movement was led by wealthy landowners who opposed early reforms by the nation's first leader, Emperor...
. The Confederation failed to take hold and the emperor put many revolutionaries to death, including Frei Caneca.
The absolutist character of events in Rio raised concern in the mostly liberal Northeast. This region soon called for its own constituent assembly. But the movement was not a success because it was divided within itself on the issue of slavery and because Pedro hired British and French ships and mercenaries to repress them. Consequently, Britain underwrote much of the transition to Brazilian independence. Britain could also facilitate recognition from the international community, and Pedro sought this recognition of Brazil's independence. At first European nations were reluctant because of the hesitance of Portugal. The United States became the first to recognize its independence. By 1825 Britain, realizing the importance of Brazil's market, convinced Portugal to accept Brazil's independence. In exchange, Pedro agreed to repay a loan from Britain for the war between Portugal and Brazil. The loan implied that Pedro would inherit the Portuguese throne. He also signed a treaty with Britain, continuing the 15% import tariff and abolishing the slave trade within three years. The concessions to end slavery especially made Pedro I unpopular with the landed aristocracy, which constituted much of the Brazilian party.
Republican sentiment soared, and during the 1825 Cisplatine War with Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
, the Cisplatine province seceded to become Uruguay
Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
. The war lasted for two years, and as a result Brazil suffered great military and financial devastation. While Pedro was visiting the troops in November and December 1826, Empress Leopoldina died after a miscarriage. Rumors spread that she had been poisoned by the Emperor's mistress, Domitila. Pamphlets were published accusing Pedro of imposing physical violence on her during her pregnancy, while having an affair with Domitila. Pedro resolved to marry again, and asked his father-in-law (Emporer Francis of Austria) for help in securing a bride. Gossip about Pedro's infidelity and the circumstances of Leopoldina's death damaged his reputation and Brazilian diplomats searching for a second wife were met with a round of refusals. Pedro and his officials discovered that the Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich actively worked to prevent any match as part of a policy to contain Pedro. In August 1829, Pedro agreed a marriage contract with a traditionally anti- Metternich family: the House of Beauharnais
House of Beauharnais
The House of Beauharnais or Beauharnois is a French noble house. It is now represented by the Duke of Leuchtenberg, descendant in male line of Eugène de Beauharnais.-History:...
. On 17 October 1829, Pedro married his second wife, Princess Amélie of Leuchtenberg, in Rio de Janeiro. Amélie was the daughter of Eugène de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg, and the granddaughter of the Empress Josephine.
Domestically, Pedro was accused of mismanaging financial affairs. During his reign, debt rose, inflation grew, the exchange rate sank, and the bank issued ineffective paper money which drove gold and silver out of circulation. The cost of living rose in the cities. British tariffs also troubled the elite and middle class, who demanded imported consumer goods. The production of tobacco, leather, cocoa, cotton, and even coffee declined. With the Portuguese still in control of most of the retail market, anti-Portuguese feelings mounted. The cumulative result of military, domestic and economic setbacks prompted most of the urban elite, who had been absolutists, to side with the liberals. Even the army, discontented with Portuguese commanders and military defeats, distanced itself from the emperor.
In the end, Dom Pedro's aspirations in Portugal cost him his rule in Brazil.
Portuguese succession
On the death of his father, João VI, on 10 March 1826 Pedro briefly inherited his title as King of Portugal as Pedro IV. He promulgated, from Rio de Janeiro, a new Portuguese liberal constitution in late April. This Constitution confirmed the exclusion of Pedro's Brazilian heir, the Prince Imperial, from the Portuguese succession, by establishing that the Portuguese crown would be inherited by Pedro's eldest daughter, Princess Maria da Glória. The language of the Constitutional Charter, in speaking of a "cession of right", already announced the abdication that was to come. On 28 May 1826, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his seven year old daughter, who became Queen Maria II of Portugal. However there was a key condition, that, when she became of age (14 years), she would marry Pedro's brother MiguelMiguel of Portugal
Dom Miguel I, sometimes Michael , was the King of Portugal between 1828 and 1834, the seventh child and second son of King John VI and his queen, Charlotte of Spain....
. Pedro's sister, Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal
Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal
Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal (or of Braganza and Borbón; ; Queluz, July 4, 1801 – Benfica, then Belém, April 22, 1876 was a Portuguese infanta (princess) daughter of King John VI of Portugal and his wife Carlota Joaquina of...
, became regent. Miguel accepted this solution and distanced himself from the absolutists, some of whom staged a rebellion, failed, and fled to Spain.
In 1827, Miguel attempted to put a claim on the regency over Isabel Maria, although nobody accepted the suggestion out of fear of the absolutists. On 22 February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal, and four days later he took the oath to his brother and the charter and was installed as lieutenant-general. This loyalty did not last long. Miguel and his mother, Carlota Joaquina, immediately began to oust the liberals and demonstrations in favor of Pedro or the constitution were prohibited.
A group of exiled liberals landed at Porto from the British ship, the Belfast, and raised a rebellion. The rebellion failed and the senior liberals were forced to take refuge back on the Belfast, and leave again for England. Of all of Portuguese territory, only the Azores
Azores
The Archipelago of the Azores is composed of nine volcanic islands situated in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, and is located about west from Lisbon and about east from the east coast of North America. The islands, and their economic exclusion zone, form the Autonomous Region of the...
remained faithful to Pedro, partly because the garrison stayed loyal. On 11 July 1828, Miguel was proclaimed king. The United States, Spain, Russia and the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
recognized him as king. Great Britain and France protested against the illegal suppression of the constitution. In August 1829, Miguel sent a squadron of 22 ships to the Azores, which were controlled by Pedro. After a day of battle, the liberals under the Count of Vila Flor emerged victorious, taking hundreds of prisoners.
In the aftermath of a political crisis that followed the dismissal of his ministers, and amid a growing economic crisis, Pedro abdicated his throne in Brazil on 7 April 1831 in favor of his son Pedro II, who was only five at the time. José Bonifácio, who had returned from exile only months before, was appointed guardian of the new emperor and his siblings. Pedro I assumed the title "Duke of Braganza", and sailed for Europe. In Britain and France he began to organize a military expedition against his brother Miguel.
War and death
Sailing from the Azores with a fleet of 34 vessels, Pedro entered Porto on 9 July 1832 without a fight. The Miguelist plan was to draw Pedro's forces into the interior, where they could be surrounded. At the battle of Ponte FerreiraBattle of Ponte Ferreira
The Battle of Ponte Ferreira, fought on 22–23 July 1832, was the first major battle of the Portuguese Civil War between the forces of Dom Pedro, ex-Emperor of Brazil and Regent for his daughter Maria da Glória, and the army of his brother Dom Miguel, who had usurped the throne of Portugal...
, the liberals fought off the Miguelists, and withdrew back into Porto. In the subsequent weeks, the absolutists besieged the city. The siege of Porto
Siege of Porto
The Siege of Porto is considered the period, which lasted over a year, between July 1832 and August 1833, in which the troops of Dom Pedro have been besieged by royalist forces of Dom Miguel....
lasted for a year; assaults by the Miguelists and attempted break-outs by the liberals were repulsed. Pedro took a risk and in June 1833 sent an expedition by sea to the ill-defended Algarve. This proved a war winning strategy as although the siege of Porto continued it became a secondary theatre of operations. Within a week, the Miguelist fleet was defeated at the battle of Cape Saint Vincent
Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1833)
The fourth Battle of Cape St Vincent was fought on 5 July 1833 and was a decisive encounter in Portugal's Liberal Wars. A naval squadron commanded by the British officer Charles Napier, on behalf of Dom Pedro IV, regent for the rightful Queen Maria II, defeated the navy of the usurper Dom...
by the British admiral Charles Napier. In July 1833, Pedro arrived in Lisbon. This gave the liberals both of Portugal's major cities, Lisbon and Porto, where they commanded a sizeable following among the middle classes. In contrast, the absolutists controlled the rural areas, where they were supported by the aristocracy, and by a peasantry that was galvanized by the Church. Marshal Saldanha eventually broke the siege of Porto in August 1833, but by the end of the month Lisbon was under siege. Miguelist attacks on 5 and 14 September were repulsed; the liberal lines held. Saldanha broke the siege on 10 October 1833, and forced the Miguelists east toward Santarém
Santarém, Portugal
Santarém is a city in the Santarém Municipality in Portugal. The city itself has a population of 28,760 and the entire municipality has 64,124 inhabitants.It is the capital of Santarém District....
. Maria da Glória was proclaimed Queen, with Dom Pedro as Regent. Pedro dismissed Miguelist ministers and clergy and appropriated church property. In early 1834, Saldanha defeated Miguelist forces at the battles of Pernes and Almoster. Liberal forces were victorious at the battle of Asseiceira in May, and entered Santarém on 18 May 1834.
On 22 April 1834 the Quadruple Alliance
Quadruple Alliance
The term "Quadruple Alliance" refers to several historical military alliances; none of which remain in effect.# The Quadruple Alliance of August 1673 was an alliance between the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Spain, Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine, and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, in...
was drawn up. Portugal, Spain, Britain and France agreed to banish Dom Miguel from Portugal and Don Carlos
Infante Carlos, Count of Molina
The Infante Carlos of Spain was the second surviving son of King Charles IV of Spain and of his wife, Maria Luisa of Parma. As Carlos V he was the first of the Carlist claimants to the throne of Spain...
from Spain. Spain committed to keep troops in Portugal until the end of the Portuguese Liberal Wars
Liberal Wars
The Liberal Wars, also known as the Portuguese Civil War, the War of the Two Brothers, or Miguelite War, was a war between progressive constitutionalists and authoritarian absolutists in Portugal over royal succession that lasted from 1828 to 1834...
, Britain promised naval support for Dom Pedro and Isabella II of Spain
Isabella II of Spain
Isabella II was the only female monarch of Spain in modern times. She came to the throne as an infant, but her succession was disputed by the Carlists, who refused to recognise a female sovereign, leading to the Carlist Wars. After a troubled reign, she was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of...
, and Portugal agreed to supply an auxiliary force for operations against Don Carlos in Spain. By 27 May 1834, Miguel's officers were unwilling to risk a final battle after nearly two years of warfare, despite still having 18,000 men in the ranks. Miguel was induced to seek terms of capitulation and by the Convention of Évora-Monte
Évoramonte Castle
The Evoramonte Castle is a Portuguese castle in Evoramonte, Estremoz, Évora district. It has been listed as a National monument since 1910....
renounced all claims to the throne of Portugal and agreed to go into exile. Maria II's betrothal to Miguel was annulled, and she married her stepmother's brother, Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg
Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg
Auguste Charles Eugène Napoléon de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg was the first Prince consort of Maria II of Portugal.-Family:...
.
Pedro had finally put his daughter Maria da Gloria back on the throne but this would be his last act. He died of tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
in Queluz
Queluz National Palace
The Queluz National Palace is a Portuguese 18th-century palace located at Queluz, a freguesia of the modern-day Sintra Municipality, in the Lisbon District. One of the last great Rococo buildings to be designed in Europe, the palace was conceived as a summer retreat for Dom Pedro of Braganza,...
, the palace of his birth, aged 35 at 2:30 p.m. on 24 September 1834. In 1972, his remains were returned to Brazil and re-interred in the present Ipiranga Museum
Museu Paulista
The Museu Paulista of the University of São Paulo is a Brazilian history museum located near where Emperor D. Pedro I proclaimed the Brazilian independence on the banks of Ipiranga brook in the Southeast region of the city of São Paulo, then the "Caminho do Mar," or road to the seashore...
.
Titles and styles
- 12 October 1798 – 11 June 1801: His Royal Highness The Most Serene Infante Dom Pedro, Grand Prior of Crato
- 11 June 1801 – 20 March 1816: His Royal Highness The Prince of Beira
- 20 March 1816 – 9 January 1817: His Royal Highness The Prince of Brazil
- 9 January 1817 – 12 October 1822: His Royal Highness The Prince Royal
- 12 October 1822 – 7 April 1831: His Imperial Majesty The Emperor
- 10 March 1826 – 28 May 1826: His Most Faithful Majesty The King
As Brazilian Emperor his full style and title were: "His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil". After his abdication the style "His Imperial Majesty the Duke of Braganza" was used.
As Portuguese King his full style and title were: "His Most Faithful Majesty Dom Pedro IV, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc."
Nobility
As heir to the Portuguese crown:- Duke of Braganza
- Duke of BarcelosDuke of BarcelosThe Dukes of Barcelos was an Nobility title granted by King Sebastian of Portugal on 5 August 1562, to the Duke of Braganza heir, during his father's life....
- Duke of GuimarãesDuke of GuimarãesThe Dukes of Guimarães was an Nobility title granted by King Afonso V of Portugal in 1475, to Ferdinand II, 3rd Duke of Braganza. The king just upgraded the previous title of count of Guimarães), that he granted to the same Duke of Braganza, some years before .When Isabel of Braganza married...
- Marquis of Vila ViçosaMarquis of Vila Viçosa.The title Marquis of Vila Viçosa was created by royal decree, dated May 25th, 1455, by King Afonso V of Portugal), to Fernando of Braganza, second son of Afonso, 1st Duke of Braganza....
- Count of OurémCount of OurémCount of Ourém is a Portuguese title granted, in 1370 by King Fernando I of Portugal, to Dom João Afonso Telo de Meneses, uncle of Queen Leonor Telles de Menezes...
- Count of BarcelosCount of BarcelosCount of Barcelos is a title of nobility, the first to be granted in Portugal. It was created in 1298 by king Denis I and initially it was a non hereditary title, although most of the holders belonged to the Teles de Menezes family...
- Count of Faria and NeivaCount of NeivaCount of Neiva is a Portuguese title granted, in 1373 by King Fernando I of Portugal, to Dom Gonçalo Teles de Meneses, brother of Queen Leonor Telles de Menezes....
- Count of ArraiolosCount of ArraiolosCount of Arraiolos is a Portuguese title granted, in 1377 by King Fernando I of Portugal, to Dom Álvaro Pires de Castro, a galician noble, brother of Inês de Castro...
- Count of Guimarães
Honors
Emperor Pedro I was Grand Master (Sovereign) of the following Brazilian Orders:- Order of ChristOrder of Christ (Brazil)The Imperial Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ , simply named Order of Christ, is an order of chivalry instituted by emperor Pedro I of Brazil on 7 December 1822, on the basis of the Portuguese Order of Christ founded by King Dom Dinis and Pope John XXII in 1316-1319. Knights of the Order of Christ...
- Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz
- Order of Saint James of the Sword
- Order of the Southern CrossOrder of the Southern CrossThe National Order of the Southern Cross is a Brazilian order of chivalry founded by Emperor Pedro I on 1 December 1822. This order was intended to commemorate the independence of Brazil and the coronation of Pedro I...
- Order of Pedro IOrder of Pedro IThe Imperial Order of Dom Pedro I is an Brazilian order of chivalry instituted by Emperor Pedro I of Brazil on 16 April 1826.On 22 March 1890, the order was cancelled as national order by the interim government of United States of Brazil....
- Order of the RoseOrder of the RoseThe Imperial Order of the Rose is an Brazilian order of chivalry, instituted by Emperor Pedro I of Brazil on 17 October 1829 to commemorate his marriage to Amélie of Leuchtenberg....
As King Pedro IV, he was Grand Master (Sovereign) of the following Portuguese Orders:
- Order of ChristOrder of Christ (Portugal)The Military Order of Christ previously the Royal Order of the Knights of Our Lord Jesus Christ was the heritage of the Knights Templar in Portugal, after the suppression of the Templars in 1312...
- Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz
- Order of Saint James of the Sword
- Order of the Tower and SwordOrder of the Tower and SwordThe Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit is a Portuguese order of knighthood and the pinnacle of the Portuguese honours system. It was created by King Afonso V in 1459....
- Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaOrder of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaThe Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa is an dynastic order of knighthood of the House of Braganza, the former Portuguese Royal Family...
After having abdicated the Portuguese crown:
- Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valor, Loyalty and MeritOrder of the Tower and SwordThe Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit is a Portuguese order of knighthood and the pinnacle of the Portuguese honours system. It was created by King Afonso V in 1459....
on 20 September 1834
He was a recipient of the following foreign honors:
- Knight of the Spanish Order of the Golden FleeceOrder of the Golden FleeceThe Order of the Golden Fleece is an order of chivalry founded in Bruges by Philip III, Duke of Burgundy in 1430, to celebrate his marriage to the Portuguese princess Infanta Isabella of Portugal, daughter of King John I of Portugal. It evolved as one of the most prestigious orders in Europe...
- Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Charles III
- Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Isabella the Catholic
- Grand Cross of the French Order of Saint LouisOrder of Saint LouisThe Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis was a military Order of Chivalry founded on 5 April 1693 by Louis XIV and named after Saint Louis . It was intended as a reward for exceptional officers, and is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles...
- Knight of the French Order of the Holy SpiritOrder of the Holy SpiritThe Order of the Holy Spirit, also known as the Order of the Knights of the Holy Spirit, was an Order of Chivalry under the French Monarchy. It should not be confused with the Congregation of the Holy Ghost or with the Order of the Holy Ghost...
- Knight of the French Order of Saint MichaelOrder of Saint MichaelThe Order of Saint Michael was a French chivalric order, founded by Louis XI of France in 1469, in competitive response to the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece founded by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, Louis' chief competitor for the allegiance of the great houses of France, the Dukes of...
- Grand Cross of the Austro-Hungarian Order of Saint StephenOrder of Saint Stephen of HungaryThe Royal Hungarian Order of Saint StephenThe Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress Maria Theresa of Austria, consisted of the grand master , 20 knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights...
Ancestry
Issue
By his first wife, Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of Austria (22 January 1797 – 11 December 1826):- Maria II of Portugal (4 April 1819 – 15 November 1853)
- Miguel, Prince of BeiraMiguel, Prince of BeiraInfante Miguel of Portugal, Prince of Beira was the stillborn son of Portuguese heir to the throne Pedro, Prince of Brazil and Maria Leopoldina of Austria and was a member of the Braganza house.Prince Miguel was named thus, in honor of his father's younger brother Miguel of Portugal...
(26 April 1820, stillborn) - João Carlos, Prince of BeiraJoão Carlos, Prince of BeiraInfante João Carlos of Portugal, Prince of Brazil was a Portuguese infante , son of heir to the throne Pedro, Prince of Brazil and Maria Leopoldina of Austria.-Ancestry:...
(6 March 1821 – 4 February 1822) - Januária Maria, Princess Imperial of Brazil (11 March 1822 – 13 March 1901). Married Prince Louis, Count of AquilaPrince Louis, Count of AquilaPrince Luigi Carlo Maria Giuseppe of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Count of Aquila was a member of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies.-Family:...
, son of Francis I of the Two SiciliesFrancis I of the Two Sicilies-Biography:Francis was born in Naples, the son of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and his wife Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria. He was also the nephew of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI the last King and Queen of France before the first French Republic....
, and had issue. - Princess Paula of BrazilPrincess Paula of BrazilPrincess Paula of Brazil was a member of the Brazilian Imperial Family, the sixth daughter of Emperor Pedro I and Empress Leopoldina.-Biography:...
(17 February 1823 – 16 January 1833). - Princess Francisca of BrazilPrincess Francisca of BrazilFrancisca of Brazil was a princess of Brazil. She was a daughter of Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal and his first wife Maria Leopoldina of Austria...
(2 August 1824 – 27 March 1898). Married Prince François, Prince of JoinvillePrince François, Prince of JoinvilleFrançois-Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Marie d'Orléans, prince de Joinville was the third son of Louis Philippe, duc d'Orléans, afterwards king of the French and his wife Marie Amalie of Bourbon-Sicilies. He was notable as an admiral of the French Navy.-Life:He was born at the Château de Neuilly, in...
, son of Louis Philippe I, and had issue. - Pedro II of BrazilPedro II of BrazilDom Pedro II , nicknamed "the Magnanimous", was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the seventh child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of...
(2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891)
By his second wife, Amélie de Beauharnais, Duchess of Leuchtenberg (31 July 1812 – 26 January 1873):
- Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil (1 December 1831 – 4 February 1853).
His illegitimate children included three by his best known lover, Domitila, Marchioness of Santos
Domitila, Marchioness of Santos
Domitila de Castro do Canto e Melo , 1st Viscountess with designation as a Grandee, then 1st Marchioness of Santos, was a Brazilian noblewoman and the long-term mistress and favorite of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.The Regent of Brazil first met D...
:
- Isabel Maria de Alcântara Brasileiro, Duchess of Goiás (born 23 May 1824)
- Pedro de Alcântara Brasileiro (born 7 December 1825) He died in infancy.
- Maria Isabel, Duchess of Ceará (born 13 August 1827) She died of meningitis in October 1828.
He had other illegitimate children, including a son Rodrigo (born in November 1823) with Domitila's sister Maria Bendita, baroness of Sorocaba, and a son with Frenchwoman Clémence Saisset. His lovers were reputed to include the wife of French naturalist Aimé Bonpland
Aimé Bonpland
Aimé Jacques Alexandre Bonpland was a French explorer and botanist.Bonpland's real name was Goujaud, and he was born in La Rochelle, a coastal city in France. After serving as a surgeon in the French army, and studying under J. N...
, ballerina Noemí Valençay (also known as Noémi Thierry), and the wife of General Jorge de Avilez, commander of the Rio garrison, among many others.
Further reading
- Harvey, RobertRobert Harvey (UK politician)Robert Lambart Harvey is a British Conservative Party politician, journalist and author.Robert Harvey has been foreign affairs leader writer for the Daily Telegraph, assistant editor of The Economist and a Member of Parliament...
(2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5566-3.