Petrine doctrine
Encyclopedia
The Petrine Doctrine is based upon Catholic
tradition, which proclaims the legitimacy and supremacy of the Pope
over all other bishop
s of the Catholic Church. This Doctrine is founded upon the book of Matthew
in the Bible
. Matthew 16: 18-19 states: "18 And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter
, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. 19 And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of Heaven
: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in Heaven
." These verses tell of Jesus
's proclamation that Peter, and thus his successors, shall be the head of the Church as the sole custodians of the Christian faith.
Vatican Council I
defined the primacy of the bishop of Rome over the whole Catholic Church as an essential institution of the Church that can never be relinquished. This primacy is thus crucial to the understanding of the church from a Catholic viewpoint. At the same time, the history of papal primacy has always been imperfect and much-debated.
According to Karl Schatz, both Catholic and non-Catholic scholars agree that multiple Biblical texts, in addition to the three Classical Petrine texts found in the Gospels of Matthew, Luke
, and John
, allude to the primacy of the papal line from Peter They also point to the fact that the strongest writings of Peter's primacy were written after his death, meaning that Peter was not just a figure in history, but one that remained of importance to the body of the Catholic Church. However, scholars do not agree on whether the papal lineage was allotted for in Jesus’ proclamation of Peter as the "rock" of the Church.
the title is now restricted to the Bishop of Rome in respect of his capacity as supreme head on earth of the universal Church; in early times it was used of any bishop. In the East
it was apparently confined to the Patriarch of Alexandria
, who is still so styled, but from the 6th century the chancery at Constantinople normally kept it for the Bishop of Rome."
The Dictionary defines "Papacy" as referring to "the system of centralized government in the Church exercised by him, along with the claim that by Divine appointment he has universal authority over Christendom
. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, St. Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and the Pope is not only his lineal successor in that office, but also inherits the unique commission given him by Christ (cf. especially Matthew 16:18 and John 21:17). The Papal Primacy was never formally accepted by the Eastern Church and it was repudiated by Protestant communions. From 756 to 1870 the Papacy was also a territorial power ruling a large part of central Italy."
The Oxford Dictionary defines the term Apostolic Succession
similarly to our previous definition of Papal Primacy, also pointing out the challenges this term has undergone: "The method whereby the ministry of the Church is held to be derived from Christ through the Apostles
by a continuous succession; it has usually been associated with an assertion that the succession has been maintained by a series of bishops. The continuity of the succession, emphasized by Clement of Rome before the end of the 1st cent., has occasionally been disputed; the necessity of it, widely taught within the historic Church, is denied by most Protestants and asserted only with qualifications by some other theologians…"
There is no evidence that the Catholic Church recognized a Pope until St. Pius I in the 2nd century. Even then, it is unclear as to whether or not the term itself existed until the 5th century. The popes who are listed following as Peter (Linus, Clement, etc.) did not function as supreme among the bishops. It seems that the position of Pope at this time was more of a civic authority in Rome, rather than a head of the Catholic Church.
Another popular debate includes Ephesians 2:20, which states that the Church was instead built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Jesus Christ being the cornerstone, rather than Peter himself. Throughout the Bible (1 Corinthians 10:4, 1 Peter2:4, and Psalm 118:22 and Isaiah 28:16), Jesus refers to himself as the rock (the Greek term being petra, while Peter is referred to as petros).
Anselm of Havelburg writes of Peter in his Dialogi: "Peter was the senior in age of the apostles, more sure in faith, more simple in hearing the words of eternal life… more ready in responding among Christ and the apostles, more effective in healing the sick even with the shadow of his body. After the Ascension of the Lord he took over in place of Christ that young and primitive church… Therefore it is not right that any of the faithful should in any way doubt or put in question, but they should hold most firmly that Peter was appointed by the Lord chief of the apostles.
has been called the most important witness of the Christianity in the 2nd century
. Taught by Polycarp
, who had been instructed by John the apostle, Irenaeus became bishop of Lyons in 178 CE. In his Against the Heresies, Irenaeus wrote, "Although there are many dialects in the world, the force of the tradition is one and the same. For the same faith is held and handed down by the churches established in the German states, the Spains, among the Celtic tribes, in the East, in Libya, and in the central portions of the world…" In Book 3, Irenaeus continues his defense of the unity of the church around the bishop, writing, "By pointing out the apostolic tradition and faith announced to mankind, which has been brought down to our time by successions of bishops, in the greatest, most ancient, and well known church, founded and established by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, at Rome, we can confound all who in any other way… gather more than they ought." al.
Iraenaus asserted the Doctrine of Apostolic Succession to counter the claims of heretics, especially the Gnostics who were attacking the theology and authority of the mainstream Church. He stated that one could find true teaching in several leading episcopal sees, not just at Rome. The doctrine he asserted, therefore, has two parts: lineage from the Apostles and right teaching. Even today a bishop can be in the line of succession, but schismatic and heretical as is the case with many episcopi vaganates who claim to or may have Catholic Orders, but have no following and have deviated from the Catholic Orthodox Faith as defined by the larger denominations such as the Orthodox, Anglicans, Roman Catholics and Lutherans.
, bishop of Antioch, was well known for his insistence on the authority of the bishop. In his writings to the church at Smyrna
in 115 CE, he encouraged the Smyrnaeans to "Avoid divisions, as the beginning of evil. Follow, all of you, the bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the father; and follow the presbytery as the apostles. Let no man do aught pertaining to the Church apart from the bishop. Wheresoever the bishop appears, there let the people be, even as wheresoever Christ Jesus is, there is the Catholic Church"
around 155 CE, Tertullian became a priest around the age of forty and worked tirelessly to defend the faith. In his Scorpiace of 208 CE, Tertullian wrote, "No delay or inquest will meet Christians on the threshold… For though you think that heaven is still shut up, remember that the Lord left the keys of it to Peter here, and through him to the Church, which keys everyone will carry with him, if he has been questioned and made confession [of faith]." Here, Tertullian not only defends Peter's primacy but also the Christian faith.
was born at Antioch
around 347 and would fight for the reform of the church until his exile in 404. His homilies emphasize his belief in the primacy. St. Chrysostom called Peter "the leader of the choir, the mouth of all the apostles, the head of that tribe, the ruler of the whole world, the foundation of the Church, the ardent lover of Christ…" His writings also emphasize the mortality of Peter, linking him more closely to the people of the Church.
in 354 and was baptized in Milan
in 387. He was also bishop of Hippo from 397 til his death in 430. Augustine taught that Peter was first amongst the apostles, and thus represents the church. His Sermo states, "For Peter in many places in the Scriptures appears to represent the Church, especially in that place where it was said "I give to thee the keys… shall be loosed in heaven". What! did Peter receive these keys, and Paul not receive? Did Peter receive and John and James not receive, and the rest of the apostles? But since in a figure Peter represented the Church, what was given to him singly was given to the Church." His 395 C.E. Contra Epistolam Manichaei states, "There are many other things which rightly keep me in the bosom of the Catholic Church… The succession of the priests keeps me, from the very seat of the apostle Peter (to whom the Lord after his resurrection gave charge to feed his sheep) down to the present episcopate."
held the papal office from 402 to 417. Modern theories of Papal Primacy developed around Innocent and his writings. In a 416 letter to Decentius
, bishop of Eugubium, Innocent writes, "Who does not know or observe that it [the church order] was delivered by Peter the chief of the apostles to the Roman church, and is kept until now, and ought to be retained by all, and that nothing ought to be imposed or introduced which has no authority, or seems to derive its precedents elsewhere?" It is also during this time that bishops began to recognize Innocent's primacy as Pope over other bishops in the West. This is made evident, among others, in a letter from the Council at Mileve to Innocent in 416 CE, which alludes the authority of "his holiness" drawn from the authority of Scripture. The doctrine of Primacy was beginning to take shape with Innocent's papacy.
identified with the authority bestowed on Peter as bishop of Rome. Leo himself was consecrated bishop of Rome in 440. He writes that "The right of this power did indeed pass on to other apostles, and the order of this decree passed on to all the chiefs of the Church; but not in vain was that which was imparted to all entrusted but one. Therefore this is commended to Peter separately, because all the rulers of the Church are invested with the figure of Peter… So then in Peter the strength of all is fortified, and the help of divine grace is so ordered that the stability which through Christ is given to Peter, through Peter is conveyed to the apostles" (Giles, 280). The Council of Chalcedon would later refer to Leo as "him who had been charged with the custody of the vine by the savior."
, formerly the Archdeacon Hildebrand. Gregory became Pope in 1073 with the objective of reforming not the body of the church, but a purification of the clergy in general. Gregory is perhaps most recognized with the quarrel between himself and King Henry IV
of Germany, known as the "Investiture Contest". Gregory's Dictus Pape outlines his policies and ideals, as well as those of the Roman Church. In this work, Gregory claims that the pope has power to depose and restore bishops, and also effectively reduces the authority of other bishops. This doctrine supported the idea that Rome and the church here also afforded primacy over all other churches. Gregory's papacy also bolstered the power of the Church over that of the State. The Gregorians defended the ideal of a separation of powers, claiming "Let kings have what belongs to kings, and priests have what belongs to priests." The Petrine Primacy was now more affirmed than ever.
, the Council of Nicea
, and the First Council of Constantinople
all dealt with the issue of primacy in that they amended the power of the popes over the other bishops. The third cannon of the First Council of Constantinople of 381 declares Constantinople the new Rome, gives the Bishop of Rome the seat of honor and gives the Bishop of Constantinople second place in honor. The Council of Ephesus in 431 offers debate as to whether the results determine that the Pope is at the head of the Church, or rather that it is under the authority of a council of bishops (Giles, 238-256). Although the highlight of the Council of Chalcedon
in 451 was the confession of the Person of Christ
, the Council also resulted in limitations to the powers of the bishops. Many letters of the Council identify its position as in agreement with papal primacy. Those present employ titles such as "the most holy and beloved of God" and "ecumenical archbishop and patriarch of great Rome" to address Pope Leo. Thus, as not all can be satisfied with the results, The Council of Chalcedon resulted in a schism with the Oriental Orthodox Church.
" in the late Middle Ages, dating from 1378-1417. Seven popes ruled from Avignon in France in the early 14th century, until Gregory XI risked returning to turbulent Italy and the Roman seat. Following the close of the Avignon papacy
in 1377, Urban VI, an Italian, took the reins over a predominantly French college of Cardinals. The Cardinals called the election into question and elected Clement VII as Pope. Germany, Italy, England, and the rest of Northern and Eastern Europe remained loyal to Urban, while France, Spain, Scotland, and Rome followed Clement VII (1378–1394) and his successor, Benedict XIII
(1394–1417) who would reside in Avignon. Although thought many times to have been improved, the divide between the two papacies has never been rejoined, calling into question both the legitimacy of the popes and the Petrine Doctrine itself.
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
tradition, which proclaims the legitimacy and supremacy of the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
over all other bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
s of the Catholic Church. This Doctrine is founded upon the book of Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel According to Matthew is one of the four canonical gospels, one of the three synoptic gospels, and the first book of the New Testament. It tells of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth...
in the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
. Matthew 16: 18-19 states: "18 And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter
Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. The son of John or of Jonah and from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee, his brother Andrew was also an apostle...
, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. 19 And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of Heaven
Keys of Heaven
In ecclesiastical heraldry, the Papal coat of arms contain the keys of the office of St. Peter. The Keys of Heaven were, according to Christian tradition, received by Saint Peter from Jesus, marking Peter's ability to take binding actions. Thus, the Keys are seen as a symbol of Papal authority...
: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in Heaven
Binding and loosing
Binding and loosing is an originally Jewish phrase which appears in the New Testament, as well as in the Targum. In usage to bind and to loose mean simply to forbid by an indisputable authority, and to permit by an indisputable authority...
." These verses tell of Jesus
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
's proclamation that Peter, and thus his successors, shall be the head of the Church as the sole custodians of the Christian faith.
Vatican Council I
First Vatican Council
The First Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This twentieth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned...
defined the primacy of the bishop of Rome over the whole Catholic Church as an essential institution of the Church that can never be relinquished. This primacy is thus crucial to the understanding of the church from a Catholic viewpoint. At the same time, the history of papal primacy has always been imperfect and much-debated.
According to Karl Schatz, both Catholic and non-Catholic scholars agree that multiple Biblical texts, in addition to the three Classical Petrine texts found in the Gospels of Matthew, Luke
Gospel of Luke
The Gospel According to Luke , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Luke or simply Luke, is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels. This synoptic gospel is an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story from the events of his birth to his Ascension.The...
, and John
Gospel of John
The Gospel According to John , commonly referred to as the Gospel of John or simply John, and often referred to in New Testament scholarship as the Fourth Gospel, is an account of the public ministry of Jesus...
, allude to the primacy of the papal line from Peter They also point to the fact that the strongest writings of Peter's primacy were written after his death, meaning that Peter was not just a figure in history, but one that remained of importance to the body of the Catholic Church. However, scholars do not agree on whether the papal lineage was allotted for in Jesus’ proclamation of Peter as the "rock" of the Church.
Definitions
The 2006 edition Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Catholic Church defines the term "Pope" as derived froma Latin word for "father": "In the W. ChurchWestern Christianity
Western Christianity is a term used to include the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church and groups historically derivative thereof, including the churches of the Anglican and Protestant traditions, which share common attributes that can be traced back to their medieval heritage...
the title is now restricted to the Bishop of Rome in respect of his capacity as supreme head on earth of the universal Church; in early times it was used of any bishop. In the East
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity comprises the Christian traditions and churches that developed in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, Northeastern Africa, India and parts of the Far East over several centuries of religious antiquity. The term is generally used in Western Christianity to...
it was apparently confined to the Patriarch of Alexandria
Patriarch of Alexandria
The Patriarch of Alexandria is the Archbishop of Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt. Historically, this office has included the designation of Pope , and did so earlier than that of the Bishop of Rome...
, who is still so styled, but from the 6th century the chancery at Constantinople normally kept it for the Bishop of Rome."
The Dictionary defines "Papacy" as referring to "the system of centralized government in the Church exercised by him, along with the claim that by Divine appointment he has universal authority over Christendom
Christendom
Christendom, or the Christian world, has several meanings. In a cultural sense it refers to the worldwide community of Christians, adherents of Christianity...
. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, St. Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and the Pope is not only his lineal successor in that office, but also inherits the unique commission given him by Christ (cf. especially Matthew 16:18 and John 21:17). The Papal Primacy was never formally accepted by the Eastern Church and it was repudiated by Protestant communions. From 756 to 1870 the Papacy was also a territorial power ruling a large part of central Italy."
The Oxford Dictionary defines the term Apostolic Succession
Apostolic Succession
Apostolic succession is a doctrine, held by some Christian denominations, which asserts that the chosen successors of the Twelve Apostles, from the first century to the present day, have inherited the spiritual, ecclesiastical and sacramental authority, power, and responsibility that were...
similarly to our previous definition of Papal Primacy, also pointing out the challenges this term has undergone: "The method whereby the ministry of the Church is held to be derived from Christ through the Apostles
Apostle (Christian)
The term apostle is derived from Classical Greek ἀπόστολος , meaning one who is sent away, from στέλλω + από . The literal meaning in English is therefore an "emissary", from the Latin mitto + ex...
by a continuous succession; it has usually been associated with an assertion that the succession has been maintained by a series of bishops. The continuity of the succession, emphasized by Clement of Rome before the end of the 1st cent., has occasionally been disputed; the necessity of it, widely taught within the historic Church, is denied by most Protestants and asserted only with qualifications by some other theologians…"
Saint Peter
It is debated whether or not Saint Peter founded the Church in Rome, see also Early centers of Christianity#Rome. St. Peter is commonly accepted as the first bishop of Rome, and thus automatically granted the title of the first Pope. Peter is usually placed first in Biblical lists of the apostles, and is often the leader of the twelve in Biblical Stories (Matthew 10:1-4, Matthew 16:13-16). It was Peter who gave the sermon on Pentecost (Acts 2).There is no evidence that the Catholic Church recognized a Pope until St. Pius I in the 2nd century. Even then, it is unclear as to whether or not the term itself existed until the 5th century. The popes who are listed following as Peter (Linus, Clement, etc.) did not function as supreme among the bishops. It seems that the position of Pope at this time was more of a civic authority in Rome, rather than a head of the Catholic Church.
Another popular debate includes Ephesians 2:20, which states that the Church was instead built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Jesus Christ being the cornerstone, rather than Peter himself. Throughout the Bible (1 Corinthians 10:4, 1 Peter2:4, and Psalm 118:22 and Isaiah 28:16), Jesus refers to himself as the rock (the Greek term being petra, while Peter is referred to as petros).
Anselm of Havelburg writes of Peter in his Dialogi: "Peter was the senior in age of the apostles, more sure in faith, more simple in hearing the words of eternal life… more ready in responding among Christ and the apostles, more effective in healing the sick even with the shadow of his body. After the Ascension of the Lord he took over in place of Christ that young and primitive church… Therefore it is not right that any of the faithful should in any way doubt or put in question, but they should hold most firmly that Peter was appointed by the Lord chief of the apostles.
Irenaeus
IrenaeusIrenaeus
Saint Irenaeus , was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, then a part of the Roman Empire . He was an early church father and apologist, and his writings were formative in the early development of Christian theology...
has been called the most important witness of the Christianity in the 2nd century
Christianity in the 2nd century
The 2nd century of Christianity was largely the time of the Apostolic Fathers who were the students of the apostles of Jesus, though there is some overlap as John the Apostle may have survived into the 2nd century and the early Apostolic Father Clement of Rome is said to have died at the end of the...
. Taught by Polycarp
Polycarp
Saint Polycarp was a 2nd century Christian bishop of Smyrna. According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp, he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to touch him...
, who had been instructed by John the apostle, Irenaeus became bishop of Lyons in 178 CE. In his Against the Heresies, Irenaeus wrote, "Although there are many dialects in the world, the force of the tradition is one and the same. For the same faith is held and handed down by the churches established in the German states, the Spains, among the Celtic tribes, in the East, in Libya, and in the central portions of the world…" In Book 3, Irenaeus continues his defense of the unity of the church around the bishop, writing, "By pointing out the apostolic tradition and faith announced to mankind, which has been brought down to our time by successions of bishops, in the greatest, most ancient, and well known church, founded and established by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, at Rome, we can confound all who in any other way… gather more than they ought." al.
Iraenaus asserted the Doctrine of Apostolic Succession to counter the claims of heretics, especially the Gnostics who were attacking the theology and authority of the mainstream Church. He stated that one could find true teaching in several leading episcopal sees, not just at Rome. The doctrine he asserted, therefore, has two parts: lineage from the Apostles and right teaching. Even today a bishop can be in the line of succession, but schismatic and heretical as is the case with many episcopi vaganates who claim to or may have Catholic Orders, but have no following and have deviated from the Catholic Orthodox Faith as defined by the larger denominations such as the Orthodox, Anglicans, Roman Catholics and Lutherans.
Ignatius
IgnatiusIgnatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch was among the Apostolic Fathers, was the third Bishop of Antioch, and was a student of John the Apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of very early Christian theology...
, bishop of Antioch, was well known for his insistence on the authority of the bishop. In his writings to the church at Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
in 115 CE, he encouraged the Smyrnaeans to "Avoid divisions, as the beginning of evil. Follow, all of you, the bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the father; and follow the presbytery as the apostles. Let no man do aught pertaining to the Church apart from the bishop. Wheresoever the bishop appears, there let the people be, even as wheresoever Christ Jesus is, there is the Catholic Church"
Tertullian
Born in CarthageCarthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
around 155 CE, Tertullian became a priest around the age of forty and worked tirelessly to defend the faith. In his Scorpiace of 208 CE, Tertullian wrote, "No delay or inquest will meet Christians on the threshold… For though you think that heaven is still shut up, remember that the Lord left the keys of it to Peter here, and through him to the Church, which keys everyone will carry with him, if he has been questioned and made confession [of faith]." Here, Tertullian not only defends Peter's primacy but also the Christian faith.
Cyprian
Thascius Cyprianus was made bishop of Carthage in 248 CE. but died only ten years later. Throughout his writings, Cyprian asserts that the Rock is Peter, and the Church rests upon him. He also claims that as the Church is settled upon the bishops, they too have authority. He writes, "They, who have departed from the Church, do not allow the Church to recall and bring back the lapsed. There is one God, and one Christ, and one Church, and one chair founded by the voice of the Lord on the rock. Another altar cannot be set up, nor a new priesthood made, besides the one altar and the one priesthood. Whoever gathers elsewhere scatters." In his 251 CE. De Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate, Cyprian asks, "He who deserts the chair of Peter, upon whom the Church was founded, does he trust himself to be in the Church?"John Chrysostom
John ChrysostomJohn Chrysostom
John Chrysostom , Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic...
was born at Antioch
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the...
around 347 and would fight for the reform of the church until his exile in 404. His homilies emphasize his belief in the primacy. St. Chrysostom called Peter "the leader of the choir, the mouth of all the apostles, the head of that tribe, the ruler of the whole world, the foundation of the Church, the ardent lover of Christ…" His writings also emphasize the mortality of Peter, linking him more closely to the people of the Church.
Augustine
Saint Augustine was born in NumidiaNumidia
Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in part of present-day Eastern Algeria and Western Tunisia in North Africa. It is known today as the Chawi-land, the land of the Chawi people , the direct descendants of the historical Numidians or the Massyles The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later...
in 354 and was baptized in Milan
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
in 387. He was also bishop of Hippo from 397 til his death in 430. Augustine taught that Peter was first amongst the apostles, and thus represents the church. His Sermo states, "For Peter in many places in the Scriptures appears to represent the Church, especially in that place where it was said "I give to thee the keys… shall be loosed in heaven". What! did Peter receive these keys, and Paul not receive? Did Peter receive and John and James not receive, and the rest of the apostles? But since in a figure Peter represented the Church, what was given to him singly was given to the Church." His 395 C.E. Contra Epistolam Manichaei states, "There are many other things which rightly keep me in the bosom of the Catholic Church… The succession of the priests keeps me, from the very seat of the apostle Peter (to whom the Lord after his resurrection gave charge to feed his sheep) down to the present episcopate."
Innocent I
Pope Innocent IPope Innocent I
-Biography:He was, according to his biographer in the Liber Pontificalis, the son of a man called Innocens of Albano; but according to his contemporary Jerome, his father was Pope Anastasius I , whom he was called by the unanimous voice of the clergy and laity to succeed -Biography:He was,...
held the papal office from 402 to 417. Modern theories of Papal Primacy developed around Innocent and his writings. In a 416 letter to Decentius
Decentius
Magnus Decentius was a usurper of the Western Roman Empire against emperor Constantius II. American scholar Michael DiMaio speculates that Decentius possibly was the brother of Magnentius, who had revolted against Constantius on 18 January 350.Magnentius elevated Decentius as Caesar by him that...
, bishop of Eugubium, Innocent writes, "Who does not know or observe that it [the church order] was delivered by Peter the chief of the apostles to the Roman church, and is kept until now, and ought to be retained by all, and that nothing ought to be imposed or introduced which has no authority, or seems to derive its precedents elsewhere?" It is also during this time that bishops began to recognize Innocent's primacy as Pope over other bishops in the West. This is made evident, among others, in a letter from the Council at Mileve to Innocent in 416 CE, which alludes the authority of "his holiness" drawn from the authority of Scripture. The doctrine of Primacy was beginning to take shape with Innocent's papacy.
Leo I
Based on his knowledge of the Petrine texts of the Gospel, and his writings which expound upon it, it is easy to see that Pope Leo IPope Leo I
Pope Leo I was pope from September 29, 440 to his death.He was an Italian aristocrat, and is the first pope of the Catholic Church to have been called "the Great". He is perhaps best known for having met Attila the Hun in 452, persuading him to turn back from his invasion of Italy...
identified with the authority bestowed on Peter as bishop of Rome. Leo himself was consecrated bishop of Rome in 440. He writes that "The right of this power did indeed pass on to other apostles, and the order of this decree passed on to all the chiefs of the Church; but not in vain was that which was imparted to all entrusted but one. Therefore this is commended to Peter separately, because all the rulers of the Church are invested with the figure of Peter… So then in Peter the strength of all is fortified, and the help of divine grace is so ordered that the stability which through Christ is given to Peter, through Peter is conveyed to the apostles" (Giles, 280). The Council of Chalcedon would later refer to Leo as "him who had been charged with the custody of the vine by the savior."
Gregory VII
The Gregorian Reform Movement was rather a series of movements many of which involved the reform of the Roman Church, headed by Gregory VIIPope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
, formerly the Archdeacon Hildebrand. Gregory became Pope in 1073 with the objective of reforming not the body of the church, but a purification of the clergy in general. Gregory is perhaps most recognized with the quarrel between himself and King Henry IV
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV was King of the Romans from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century...
of Germany, known as the "Investiture Contest". Gregory's Dictus Pape outlines his policies and ideals, as well as those of the Roman Church. In this work, Gregory claims that the pope has power to depose and restore bishops, and also effectively reduces the authority of other bishops. This doctrine supported the idea that Rome and the church here also afforded primacy over all other churches. Gregory's papacy also bolstered the power of the Church over that of the State. The Gregorians defended the ideal of a separation of powers, claiming "Let kings have what belongs to kings, and priests have what belongs to priests." The Petrine Primacy was now more affirmed than ever.
Councils
Many challenges faced the Popes claiming primacy throughout the history of Catholicism. The Edict of MilanEdict of Milan
The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine I and Licinius that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire...
, the Council of Nicea
First Council of Nicaea
The First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325...
, and the First Council of Constantinople
First Council of Constantinople
The First Council of Constantinople is recognized as the Second Ecumenical Council by the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, the Old Catholics, and a number of other Western Christian groups. It was the first Ecumenical Council held in...
all dealt with the issue of primacy in that they amended the power of the popes over the other bishops. The third cannon of the First Council of Constantinople of 381 declares Constantinople the new Rome, gives the Bishop of Rome the seat of honor and gives the Bishop of Constantinople second place in honor. The Council of Ephesus in 431 offers debate as to whether the results determine that the Pope is at the head of the Church, or rather that it is under the authority of a council of bishops (Giles, 238-256). Although the highlight of the Council of Chalcedon
Council of Chalcedon
The Council of Chalcedon was a church council held from 8 October to 1 November, 451 AD, at Chalcedon , on the Asian side of the Bosporus. The council marked a significant turning point in the Christological debates that led to the separation of the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th...
in 451 was the confession of the Person of Christ
Person of Christ
In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person.There are no direct discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human...
, the Council also resulted in limitations to the powers of the bishops. Many letters of the Council identify its position as in agreement with papal primacy. Those present employ titles such as "the most holy and beloved of God" and "ecumenical archbishop and patriarch of great Rome" to address Pope Leo. Thus, as not all can be satisfied with the results, The Council of Chalcedon resulted in a schism with the Oriental Orthodox Church.
Schism
Internally, people questioned who rightfully was pope, while others wondered as to the role the Pope was to play outside of Rome. The papacy's most widely-known crisis, as well as its largest challenge to authority, came with the "Great SchismWestern Schism
The Western Schism or Papal Schism was a split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417. Two men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope. Driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism was ended by the Council of Constance . The simultaneous claims to the papal chair...
" in the late Middle Ages, dating from 1378-1417. Seven popes ruled from Avignon in France in the early 14th century, until Gregory XI risked returning to turbulent Italy and the Roman seat. Following the close of the Avignon papacy
Avignon Papacy
The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon, in modern-day France. This arose from the conflict between the Papacy and the French crown....
in 1377, Urban VI, an Italian, took the reins over a predominantly French college of Cardinals. The Cardinals called the election into question and elected Clement VII as Pope. Germany, Italy, England, and the rest of Northern and Eastern Europe remained loyal to Urban, while France, Spain, Scotland, and Rome followed Clement VII (1378–1394) and his successor, Benedict XIII
Antipope Benedict XIII
Benedict XIII, born Pedro Martínez de Luna y Pérez de Gotor , known as in Spanish, was an Aragonese nobleman, who is officially considered by the Catholic Church to be an antipope....
(1394–1417) who would reside in Avignon. Although thought many times to have been improved, the divide between the two papacies has never been rejoined, calling into question both the legitimacy of the popes and the Petrine Doctrine itself.
Further reading
- Chadwick, Henry. The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Collins, Paul. Upon This Rock: The Popes and their Changing Roles. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2000.
- Evans, G.R. The Church in the Early Middle Ages. I.B. Tauris: New York, 2007.
- Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. Chronicle of the Popes : the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present. 2nd ed. London : Thames & Hudson, 2006.
- Perkins, Pheme. Peter: Apostle for the Whole Church. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
- Pham, John-Peter. Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
- Ray, Stephen K. Upon This Rock: St. Peter and the Primacy of Rome in Scripture and the Early Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1999.
- Winter, Michael M. Saint Peter and the Popes. Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1960.