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Phallus (genus)
Encyclopedia
The genus
Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, are a group of basidiomycetes which produce a foul-scented, phallic mushroom
, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales
. The best known species (and type species
) is the common stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus
).
(1511–1575), who, in 1564 wrote a short book published in Delft
on the Phallus in Hollandia, describing a mushroom in the form of a penis. He was not convinced that the organism was fungal in nature:
In 1753, Carl Linnaeus used the genus name Phallus in his Species Plantarum
; the named was later sanctioned
by Christian Hendrik Persoon
when he used it in his 1801 Synopsis Methodica Fungorum.
Some authors have considered the presence of an indusium (a lacy "skirt" that hangs beneath the cap) to be an important taxonomic characteristic, and have placed taxa with indusia in a separate genus Dictyophora. More recent publications suggest that there are close morphological
similarities in Phallus species with and without an indusium, so the trend has been to merge Dictyophora into Phallus; the online taxonomic databases Index Fungorum
and MycoBank
consider Dictyophora synonymous
with Phallus.
, who surveyed the genus in 1996, there are 33 species. Of these, 3 species are limited to the New World
, 18 to the Old World
, and another are 10 found in both hemispheres. His treatment divides the genus into five subgenera: Aporophallus; Itajahya; Endophallus; Satyrus; and Phallus. Spanish mycologist Francisco D. Calonge recognized 25 species in 2005, while according to the Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed, 2008), there are 18 species. Recently proposed species (not accounted for by these publications) include P. maderensis (2008), P. luteus (2009), P. drewesii
(2009), and P. calongei
(2009).
, is white to pale, smooth, firm-membranous. The slimy spore
mass, or gleba
, is attached to outer surface of the cap
, and is colored dark olivaceous to blackish brown. The stalks
of Phallus mushrooms are called receptacles: they are upright, cylindrical, hollow, spongy, and bearing roughly bell-shaped cap with irregularly branching ridges on the outer surface. Some species have an indusium, a net-like structure that extends from the cap to the ground. The gleba is slimy and pale greenish-yellow; in several species the gleba has a foul, carrion
-like odor, which attracts insects that then help disperse the spores. Mosquito
es, however, that feed on the gleba are killed, suggesting the fungus may contain compounds that could be used as an attractant or biocontrol
agent.
The spores of Phallus species are small, ellipsoid, and somewhat translucent (hyaline
). The spores of various Phallaceae species, including P. ravenelii has been shown to be smooth and featureless using scanning electron microscopy. Roughened spore surfaces are considered by some mycologists to be an adaptation that results in friction during travel in the air, and increase dispersal distances. Phallus spores are not airborne at any time in their life cycle.
of Nigeria
call stinkhorn mushrooms Akufodewa, a combination of the words ku (die), fun (for), ode (hunter), and a (search). The Yoruban name reflects the belief that hunters, smelling the glebal odor in the forest, may mistake the smell for a dead animal and search for it. Phallus mushrooms are also used by the Yoruba to prepare a charm known as Egbe, which reputedly "has the power of making one invisible in the face of danger." Stinkhorns are also used by the Urhobo
and Ibibio people
of southeastern Nigeria to prepare "harmful charms". They associate the fungus with the millipede
, as is reflected in their names for the mushrooms: the Urhobo call it Uwovwi-rerivwi, from the Urhobo Uwivwi (house), re (of), rivwe (millipede); the Ibido name is Efoketim, from the Ibidio efok (house) and etim (millipede). The Ụkwụànì
of Asaba
, who associate the stinkhorns with death because of their smell, use the fungus to prepare "harmful charms and charms which confer immunity against evil attacks." They call the mushrooms Oga-egungun, from the Ụkwụànì oga (net or fence) and egungun (dead person).
Phallus mushrooms are found amongst leaf litter in damp woodland with the rhizomorphs attached to buried wood. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution
, but with richer species diversity
in tropical regions.
Phallus aurantiacus
Phallus callichrous
Phallus calongei
Phallus celebicus
Phallus cinnabarinus
Phallus drewesii
Discovered on the western African island of Sao Tome.
Phallus duplicatus
Phallus flavocostaus
Phallus formanosus
Phallus galericulatus
Phallus glutinolens
Phallus formosanus
Phallus hadriani
Phallus impudicus
Phallus indusiatus
Phallus luteus
A new combination proposed in 2008 for the fungus formerly known as Dictyophora indusiata f. lutea.
Phallus macrosporus
Phallus maderensis
Phallus minusculus
Found in Tanzania
by Francisco Calonge and Hanns Kreisel and first reported in 2002.
Phallus multicolor
Phallus pygmaeus
This species is a miniature Phallus (up to 1 cm tall) found in the Brazilian State Pernambuco
.
Phallus ravenelii
Phallus roseus
Phallus rubicundus
Phallus tenuis
Phallus tenuissimus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, are a group of basidiomycetes which produce a foul-scented, phallic mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales
Phallales
The Phallales are an order of fungi that is more or less synonymous with the gomphoid-phalloid clade. The order contains two families, the Claustulaceae and the Phallaceae, which collectively contain 26 genera and 88 species.-External links:...
. The best known species (and type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
) is the common stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and western North America, where it...
).
History and taxonomy
The genus was first mentioned in the literature by the Dutch botanist Hadrianus JuniusHadrianus Junius
Hadrianus Junius , also known as Adriaen de Jonghe, was a Dutch physician, classical scholar, translator, lexicographer, antiquarian, historiographer, emblematist, school rector, and Latin poet. He is not to be confused with several namesakes...
(1511–1575), who, in 1564 wrote a short book published in Delft
Delft
Delft is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland , the Netherlands. It is located between Rotterdam and The Hague....
on the Phallus in Hollandia, describing a mushroom in the form of a penis. He was not convinced that the organism was fungal in nature:
... I am not sure that our Phallus falls within the class of the fungi. I will not definitely decide to place it there because I do not want to make a judgment before others who know more about the matter. The lightness, however, and looseness of the substance and (a necessary condition for the existence of sponges) the sour sap of the moist earth where it was born, all bear witness that it belongs to the family of the fungi. However, the folds and creases, which do not exist here, but do among fungi, bear witness against it. There is also no trace of the cap that is normally connected to the stalk. Here the hat takes the place of the cap, and it can be removed without damage. Moreover, the site where it lives also argues against it, because this plant can only be found in dunes, and only there where old marram grass grows. Fungi, on the other hand, as stated clearly by authors, live in swampy, dirty, and rotting moist places, such as close to the roots of oak trees.
In 1753, Carl Linnaeus used the genus name Phallus in his Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work by Carl Linnaeus. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. This means that the first names to be considered validly published in botany are those that appear...
; the named was later sanctioned
Sanctioned name
In mycology, a sanctioned name is a name that was adopted in certain works of Christiaan Hendrik Persoon or Elias Magnus Fries, which are considered major points in fungal taxonomy.-Definition and effects:...
by Christian Hendrik Persoon
Christian Hendrik Persoon
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon was a mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy.-Early life:...
when he used it in his 1801 Synopsis Methodica Fungorum.
Some authors have considered the presence of an indusium (a lacy "skirt" that hangs beneath the cap) to be an important taxonomic characteristic, and have placed taxa with indusia in a separate genus Dictyophora. More recent publications suggest that there are close morphological
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
similarities in Phallus species with and without an indusium, so the trend has been to merge Dictyophora into Phallus; the online taxonomic databases Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum, an international project to index all formal names in the Fungi Kingdom. Somewhat comparable to the IPNI, but with more contributing institutions....
and MycoBank
MycoBank
MycoBank is an online database, documenting new mycological names and combinations, eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations. It is run by the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures fungal biodiversity center in Utrecht....
consider Dictyophora synonymous
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
with Phallus.
Diversity
According the German mycologist Hanns KreiselHanns Kreisel
Hanns Kreisel is a German mycologist and professor emeritus.Kreisel was a professor at the University of Greifswald. His field is the classification of fungi, where he has studied this group of organisms not only in Germany but in almost all continents, as in Brazil, Seychelles, Vietnam, Cuba and...
, who surveyed the genus in 1996, there are 33 species. Of these, 3 species are limited to the New World
New World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
, 18 to the Old World
Old World
The Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....
, and another are 10 found in both hemispheres. His treatment divides the genus into five subgenera: Aporophallus; Itajahya; Endophallus; Satyrus; and Phallus. Spanish mycologist Francisco D. Calonge recognized 25 species in 2005, while according to the Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed, 2008), there are 18 species. Recently proposed species (not accounted for by these publications) include P. maderensis (2008), P. luteus (2009), P. drewesii
Phallus drewesii
Phallus drewesii is a species of stinkhorn mushroom endemic to São Tomé that was first described in 2009. It can be distinguished from the other 28 stinkhorn mushrooms in the Phallus genus by its small size, white net-like stem, brown spore-covered head and by its stem curving down instead of up...
(2009), and P. calongei
Phallus calongei
Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba...
(2009).
Description
The immature fruit bodies of Phallus species grow underground, are roughly spherical to ovoid, and have a soft or gelatinous surface. Conspicuous white rhizomorphs extend from the base of this structure and help to anchor it in the soil. The outer tissue layer, or peridiumPeridium
The peridium is the protective layer that encloses a mass of spores in fungi. This outer covering is a distinctive feature of the Gasteromycetes.-Description:...
, is white to pale, smooth, firm-membranous. The slimy spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
mass, or gleba
Gleba
Gleba is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn.The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continuous maturity of the sporogenous cells leave the spores behind as a powdery mass that can be easily blown away...
, is attached to outer surface of the cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
, and is colored dark olivaceous to blackish brown. The stalks
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
of Phallus mushrooms are called receptacles: they are upright, cylindrical, hollow, spongy, and bearing roughly bell-shaped cap with irregularly branching ridges on the outer surface. Some species have an indusium, a net-like structure that extends from the cap to the ground. The gleba is slimy and pale greenish-yellow; in several species the gleba has a foul, carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...
-like odor, which attracts insects that then help disperse the spores. Mosquito
Mosquito
Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies: the Culicidae . The word Mosquito is from the Spanish and Portuguese for little fly...
es, however, that feed on the gleba are killed, suggesting the fungus may contain compounds that could be used as an attractant or biocontrol
BioControl
BioControl is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science+Business Media covering all aspects of basic and applied research in biological control of invertebrate, vertebrate, and weed pests, and plant diseases. The journal was established in 1956 as Entomophaga and published by...
agent.
The spores of Phallus species are small, ellipsoid, and somewhat translucent (hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
). The spores of various Phallaceae species, including P. ravenelii has been shown to be smooth and featureless using scanning electron microscopy. Roughened spore surfaces are considered by some mycologists to be an adaptation that results in friction during travel in the air, and increase dispersal distances. Phallus spores are not airborne at any time in their life cycle.
Nigerian folklore
The Yoruba peopleYoruba people
The Yoruba people are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language...
of Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
call stinkhorn mushrooms Akufodewa, a combination of the words ku (die), fun (for), ode (hunter), and a (search). The Yoruban name reflects the belief that hunters, smelling the glebal odor in the forest, may mistake the smell for a dead animal and search for it. Phallus mushrooms are also used by the Yoruba to prepare a charm known as Egbe, which reputedly "has the power of making one invisible in the face of danger." Stinkhorns are also used by the Urhobo
Urhobo people
The Urhobo are people of southern Nigeria, near the northwestern Niger River delta. The Urhobo is the major ethnic group in Delta State; the Delta State is one of the 36 states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. They speak Urhobo, a language in Niger–Congo group...
and Ibibio people
Ibibio people
The Ibibio are a people of southeastern Nigeria. They are related to the Anaang and the Efik peoples. During colonial period in Nigeria, the Ibibio Union asked for recognition by the British as a sovereign nation . The Annang, Efik, Ekid, Oron and Ibeno share personal names, culture, and traditions...
of southeastern Nigeria to prepare "harmful charms". They associate the fungus with the millipede
Millipede
Millipedes are arthropods that have two pairs of legs per segment . Each segment that has two pairs of legs is a result of two single segments fused together as one...
, as is reflected in their names for the mushrooms: the Urhobo call it Uwovwi-rerivwi, from the Urhobo Uwivwi (house), re (of), rivwe (millipede); the Ibido name is Efoketim, from the Ibidio efok (house) and etim (millipede). The Ụkwụànì
Ukwuani
Ụkwụànì are an Igbo group in Delta and Rivers states in Nigeria.-Language:The Ụkwụànì dialect, which is intelligible with the dialects of Aboh and Ndoni, is considered a dialect of the Igbo language.-Economy:...
of Asaba
Asaba, Nigeria
Asaba is the capital of Nigeria's Delta State, and has an estimated population of 149,603 .- Etymology :Ahaba in Igbo is from 'Ahabagom', meaning I have chosen well, a quote from the founding father of Asaba.- Geography :...
, who associate the stinkhorns with death because of their smell, use the fungus to prepare "harmful charms and charms which confer immunity against evil attacks." They call the mushrooms Oga-egungun, from the Ụkwụànì oga (net or fence) and egungun (dead person).
Habitat
Cosmopolitan distribution
In biogeography, a taxon is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution if its range extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. For instance, the killer whale has a cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the world's oceans. Other examples include humans, the lichen...
, but with richer species diversity
Species diversity
Species diversity is an index that incorporates the number of species in an area and also their relative abundance. It is a more comprehensive value than species richness....
in tropical regions.
Species
Phallus atrovolvatusPhallus aurantiacus
Phallus callichrous
Phallus calongei
Phallus calongei
Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba...
Phallus celebicus
Phallus cinnabarinus
Phallus drewesii
Phallus drewesii
Phallus drewesii is a species of stinkhorn mushroom endemic to São Tomé that was first described in 2009. It can be distinguished from the other 28 stinkhorn mushrooms in the Phallus genus by its small size, white net-like stem, brown spore-covered head and by its stem curving down instead of up...
Discovered on the western African island of Sao Tome.
Phallus duplicatus
Phallus duplicatus
Phallus duplicatus is a species of stinkhorn. The cap is green-brown, the stem is white. When mature the cap becomes sticky and attract flies which disperse its spores, and it has a distinct, "netted" universal veil. The edibility of this mushroom is unclear. It grows mainly in public lawns...
Phallus flavocostaus
Phallus formanosus
Phallus galericulatus
Phallus glutinolens
Phallus formosanus
Phallus hadriani
Phallus hadriani
Phallus hadriani, commonly known as the dune stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae family. It is a widely distributed species, and is native to Asia, Europe, and North America. In Australia, it is probably an introduced species. The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to tall by ...
Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus
Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and western North America, where it...
Phallus indusiatus
Phallus indusiatus
Phallus indusiatus, commonly called in English the bamboo fungus, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady, is a stinkhorn fungus in the Phallaceae family. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and has been collected in Asia, the Americas, and Africa...
Phallus luteus
A new combination proposed in 2008 for the fungus formerly known as Dictyophora indusiata f. lutea.
Phallus macrosporus
Phallus maderensis
Phallus minusculus
Found in Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
by Francisco Calonge and Hanns Kreisel and first reported in 2002.
Phallus multicolor
Phallus pygmaeus
Phallus pygmaeus
Phallus pygmaeus is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. It was found growing on rotten wood in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil, and first reported in 2003. The fruiting bodies, which are otherwise similar in appearance to the well-known Phallus impudicus, do not typically grow more than long....
This species is a miniature Phallus (up to 1 cm tall) found in the Brazilian State Pernambuco
Pernambuco
Pernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. To the north are the states of Paraíba and Ceará, to the west is Piauí, to the south are Alagoas and Bahia, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. There are about of beaches, some of the most beautiful in the...
.
Phallus ravenelii
Phallus ravenelii
Phallus ravenelii, commonly known as Ravenel's stinkhorn, is a fungus found in eastern North America. Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature. It is saprobic, and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in...
Phallus roseus
Phallus rubicundus
Phallus rubicundus
Phallus rubicundus is a species of stinkhorn.-Distribution:It grows mainly in southern North America, in lawns, gardens and yards. This species can also grow in wood chips and sandy soils.-Description:...
Phallus tenuis
Phallus tenuissimus
External links
- Phallaceae at Mushroom Expert - contain information on this genus