Plasmodium juxtanucleare
Encyclopedia
Plasmodium juxtanucleare is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium
subgenus Bennettinia
.
Like all Plasmodium species P. juxtanucleare has both vertebrate
and insect
hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are bird
s.
Parasite densities tend to be low (0.1–1% infected erythrocytes). Multiple infections of the same erythrocyte may occur.
The trophozoites have scanty cytoplasm and are irregular in shape. When fully grown they may be round,oval or irregular. They adhere closely to the nucleus and have 1-2 pigment granules. While a vacuole may be present there is no ring form unlike that of other species.
The trophozoites produce two to six merozoites per erythrocyte. The merozoites have scanty cytoplasm and do not exceed the size of the nucleus when fully developed.
The schizonts are small and always found juxtaposed to the erythrocyte nucleus.
The gametocyte
s resemble those of Plasmodium relictum and may displace the nucleus. They are of variable shape:oval, round, elongated or even irregular. They do not exceed the size of the nucleus.
Perhaps the most characteristic feature of this genus is the formation of pedunculated oocyts in the mosquito midgut
.
, Indonesia
, Japan
, Philippines
, Malaysia, Mexico
, South Africa
, Sri Lanka
, Taiwan
, Tanzania
and Uruguay
. It is thought that this species probably originated in South East Asia but this requires confirmation.
P. juxtanucleare is one of the causes of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) malaria
. Clinical findings associated with high parasitemia are anemia
, diarrhea
and weight loss that may lead to death. Body temperature is not elevated. Increases in the thrombocyte number and total leukocyte and basophil count have been reported.
The course of the parasitemia showed low levels initially and reaching a peak after 15 days; trophozoites were the most commonly observed form, followed by schizonts (first detected on day 12) and gametocyte
s (first seen on day 27). The typical distribution after the gametocytes have appeared is trophozoites (80%) schizonts (17%) and gametocytes (3%).
P. juxtanucleare also infects black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus). Five fatal cases were reported in a Sounth African zoo. Laboratory findings included parasitemia, splenomegaly, pulmonary oedema and schizonts in the reticuloendothelial system.
This species infects the Chinese bamboo partridge (Bambusicola thorasica), the white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon), the Malayan jungle fowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus) Sri Lankan junglefowl (Gallus lafeyetti), the African partridge (Francolinus africanus), the crested francolin (Francolinus sephena), the wild turkey (Melagris gallopavo) and the Indian Peafowl (Pavo crisatus).
Culex gelidus
Culex molestus Forskal
Culex pipiens fatigens
Culex pipiens pallus
Culex pseudovishnui
Culex saltanensis Dyar 1928
Culex (Culex) sitiens Wiedmann
Culex tritaeniorhynchus
Mansonia crassipes
Plasmodium
Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protists. Infection by these organisms is known as malaria. The genus Plasmodium was described in 1885 by Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli. Currently over 200 species of this genus are recognized and new species continue to be described.Of the over 200 known...
subgenus Bennettinia
Bennettinia
Bennettinia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parastic protozoa. The subgenus was created in 1997 by Valkiunas. Species in this subgenus infect birds.- Diagnostic features :...
.
Like all Plasmodium species P. juxtanucleare has both vertebrate
Vertebrate
Vertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...
and insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s.
Description
This species was first described in 1941 by Versiani and Gomes. The subgenus is named after Professor Gordon F. Bennett.Parasite densities tend to be low (0.1–1% infected erythrocytes). Multiple infections of the same erythrocyte may occur.
The trophozoites have scanty cytoplasm and are irregular in shape. When fully grown they may be round,oval or irregular. They adhere closely to the nucleus and have 1-2 pigment granules. While a vacuole may be present there is no ring form unlike that of other species.
The trophozoites produce two to six merozoites per erythrocyte. The merozoites have scanty cytoplasm and do not exceed the size of the nucleus when fully developed.
The schizonts are small and always found juxtaposed to the erythrocyte nucleus.
The gametocyte
Gametocyte
A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes....
s resemble those of Plasmodium relictum and may displace the nucleus. They are of variable shape:oval, round, elongated or even irregular. They do not exceed the size of the nucleus.
Perhaps the most characteristic feature of this genus is the formation of pedunculated oocyts in the mosquito midgut
Midgut
The midgut is the portion of the embryo from which most of the intestines develop. After it bends around the superior mesenteric artery, it is called the "midgut loop"...
.
Geographical occurrence
This species is found in a number of countries including Brasil, IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
, Malaysia, Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
, Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
and Uruguay
Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
. It is thought that this species probably originated in South East Asia but this requires confirmation.
Clinical features and host pathology
The disease caused by this parasite is similar to that caused by Leucocytozoon caulleryi.P. juxtanucleare is one of the causes of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
. Clinical findings associated with high parasitemia are anemia
Anemia
Anemia is a decrease in number of red blood cells or less than the normal quantity of hemoglobin in the blood. However, it can include decreased oxygen-binding ability of each hemoglobin molecule due to deformity or lack in numerical development as in some other types of hemoglobin...
, diarrhea
Diarrhea
Diarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
and weight loss that may lead to death. Body temperature is not elevated. Increases in the thrombocyte number and total leukocyte and basophil count have been reported.
The course of the parasitemia showed low levels initially and reaching a peak after 15 days; trophozoites were the most commonly observed form, followed by schizonts (first detected on day 12) and gametocyte
Gametocyte
A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes....
s (first seen on day 27). The typical distribution after the gametocytes have appeared is trophozoites (80%) schizonts (17%) and gametocytes (3%).
P. juxtanucleare also infects black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus). Five fatal cases were reported in a Sounth African zoo. Laboratory findings included parasitemia, splenomegaly, pulmonary oedema and schizonts in the reticuloendothelial system.
This species infects the Chinese bamboo partridge (Bambusicola thorasica), the white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon), the Malayan jungle fowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus) Sri Lankan junglefowl (Gallus lafeyetti), the African partridge (Francolinus africanus), the crested francolin (Francolinus sephena), the wild turkey (Melagris gallopavo) and the Indian Peafowl (Pavo crisatus).
Known vectors
Culex annulusCulex gelidus
Culex molestus Forskal
Culex pipiens fatigens
Culex pipiens pallus
Culex pseudovishnui
Culex saltanensis Dyar 1928
Culex (Culex) sitiens Wiedmann
Culex tritaeniorhynchus
Culex tritaeniorhynchus
Culex tritaeniorhynchus is a species of mosquitoes which transmits Japanese encephalitis. This mosquito is a native of northern Asia, and parts of Africa . The females target large animals for blood extraction, including cattle and swine.- External links :*...
Mansonia crassipes