Polydore Vergil
Encyclopedia
Polydore Vergil (c. 1470 – 18 April 1555) was an Italian
historian
, otherwise known as PV Castellensis. He is better known as the contemporary historian during the early Tudor dynasty. He was hired by King Henry VIII of England
, who wanted to distance himself from his father Henry VII
as much as possible, to document both his and his father's lives. Naturally, the historical accuracy has come into question especially concerning Henry VII. However, his work is still seen as important as he was one of the few to have a degree of access to Henry VIII
and so his work is still frequently used.
. His father's name is said to have been George Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, "a man well skilled in medicine and astrology," had practiced philosophy at the University of Paris
, as did Polydore's own brother and protege John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia
, in 1517. His third brother was a merchant in London.
Polydore was born at Urbino
, is said to have been educated at and was probably in the service of Guido Ubaldo, Duke of Urbino, before 1498, as in the dedication of his first work, Liber Proverbiorum (April 1498), he styles himself this prince's client. Polydore's second book, De Inventoribus Rerum, is dedicated to Guido's tutor, Ludovicus Odaxius, from Urbino, in August 1499. After a period as chamberlain to Pope Alexander VI
he came to England in 1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence
for the cardinal. As Hadrian's proxy, he was enthroned Bishop of Bath and Wells
in October 1504. It was at the instigation of King Henry VII of England
that he commenced his Historia Anglica--a work which, though apparently begun as early as 1505, was not completed till August 1533, the date of its dedication to Henry VIII
, and was not published till 1534.
In May 1514 Polydore and his patron, the cardinal, were found supporting Wolsey's claims to the cardinalship, but he had lost Wolsey's favor before the year was out. A rash letter, reflecting severely on Henry VIII and Wolsey, was intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore was cast into prison and supplanted in his collectorship (March and April). He had some powerful supporters; Pope Leo X
wrote to the king on his behalf. From prison he sent an abject and almost blasphemous letter to the offended minister, begging that the fast approaching Christmas—a time which witnessed the restitution of a world—might see his pardon also. He was freed before Christmas 1515, though he never regained his collectorship. In 1525 he published the first edition of Gildas
, dedicating the work to Cuthbert Tunstall
, Bishop of London
.
Next year his Liber de Prodigiis appeared, dedicated to Francesco Maria
, Duke of Urbino. Around 1538 Polydore left England and returned to Italy for some time. He claimed that ill-health prevented him on his return from making his daily notes on contemporary events. About the end of 1551 he went home to Urbino, where he appeared to have died in 1555. He had been naturalized an Englishman on 22 October 1510, and had held several clerical appointments in England. In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513 prebendary of Oxgate in St Paul's Cathedral
, both of which offices he held after his return to Urbino.
The first edition of the Historia Anglica (twenty-six books) was printed at Basel
in 1534; the twenty-seventh book, dealing with the reign of Henry VIII down to the birth of Edward VI
, was added to the third edition of 1555. Polydore claims to have been very careful in collecting materials for this work, and to have used foreign as well as English historians. For this reason, he remarks, the English, Scots and French will find things reported in his pages far differently from the way they are used to hearing them within their own countries. In his search for information he applied to James IV of Scotland
for a list of the Scottish kings and their annals; but not even his friendship with Gavin Douglas
could make him accept the historical theories of the latter, who traced the pedigree of the Scots down from the banished son of an Athenian king and Scotta the daughter of the Egyptian tyrant of the Israelites.
A similar scepticism made him doubt the veracity of Geoffrey of Monmouth
, and thus called forth John Leland's Defensso Gallofridi and Assertio Incomparabilis Arturii. This doubting instinct led to his being accused of many offences against learning, such as that of burning cartloads of manuscripts lest his errors should be discovered, of stealing books from libraries and shipping them off to Rome. It is mainly from the time of Henry VI
, where contemporary records begin to fail, that Polydore's work is useful. He must have been personally acquainted with many men whose memories went back to the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
. John Sherren Brewer
was one of the first to shed doubt on his reliability as an authority for the reign of Henry VIII, and indeed his spite against Wolsey is evident; but it is impossible to read his social and geographical accounts of England and Scotland without gratitude for a writer who has preserved so many interesting details.
Polydore's Adagia (Venice, April 1498) was the first collection of Latin proverbs ever printed; it preceded Erasmus's by two years, and the slight misunderstanding that arose for the moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship. A second series of Biblical proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to Wolsey's follower, Richard Pace
, and is preceded by an interesting letter sent in June 1519, which gives the names of many of Polydore's English friends, from More
and Archbishop Warham
to Linacre
and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus, treating of the origin of all things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted of only seven books, but was increased to eight in 1521. It was exceedingly popular, and was quickly translated into French (1521), German (1537), English (1546) and Spanish (1551). All editions, however, except those following the text sanctioned by Gregory XIII
in 1576, are on the Index Expurgatorius.
The De Prodigiis also achieved great popularity, and was translated into Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550). This treatise takes the form of a Latin dialogue between Polydore and his Cambridge friend Robert Ridley. It takes place in the open air, at Polydore's country house near London. Polydore's duty is to state the problems and supply the historical illustrations; his friend's to explain, rationalize and depreciate as best he can. Here, as in the Historia Anglica, it is plain that the writer prides himself on the excellence of his Latin, which in Sir Henry Ellis's opinion is purer than that of any of his contemporaries.
Vergil published his first work in 1496. It was an edition of Perotti’s commentary on Martial
, the Cornucopiae. Two years later Vergil published his Prouerbium Libellus, or Adagia, and in 1499 the Inuentoribus Rerum appeared. After he had withdrawn from politics Vergil worked on his literary works and produced an expanded version of the Inuentoribus Rerum in 1521. At the same time a revision and expansion of the Prouerbium Libellus was produced. He completed an entirely new project in 1525: Vergil’s edition of Gildas
was published. In 1526 the Adagia was revised. At Erasmus’ request, Vergil worked on a translation of Dio Chrysostom's
De Perfecto Monacho, which Vergil published in 1530, followed by the Dialogi de Prodigiis. In 1534, then, the first edition of the Anglica Historia was printed in Basle. In 1545, Vergil published a collection of dialogues: De Patienta, de Vita Perfecta, de Veritate et Mendacio. In 1546 a second version of the Anglica Historia appeared and a third edition was published in 1555, expanded with the account of events from 1509-1537.
All above mentioned works contain historical matter, but only three are historical in nature. They are the De Inuentoribus Rerum, his edition of Gildas and the Anglica Historia.
' 6th-century work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae
is the first critical edition of a British historical text. By publishing this edition, Vergil reflected a growing interest in post-classical texts among German and Italian scholars. This interest sprang mainly from self-conscious nationalism which makes it curious at least that a foreigner chose a text about Britain. Vergil did, however, have a motive; this project provided a background for his anti-Arthurian position. The text was edited by Bishop Tunstall and Robert Ridley who altered the text to make the sense plainer and emended some anti-clerical passages leaving the text somewhat disfigured. The text was finally published in 1525.
The manuscript is now in the Vatican Library. The two volumes it is contained in were presented to the ducal library at Urbino in 1613 by Vergil’s grand-nephew. Although he stated in the preface that it was of the hand of Polydore Vergil, there has been some debate about the authorship of the work. In the past the Anglica Historia has sometimes been attributed to Federico Veterani. This misunderstanding was brought into the world by the terms of a colophon in the second manuscript volume, which was in a completely different handwriting. It states: 'I, Federico Veterani, wrote the whole work'. The hand in which the rest of the manuscript is written, however, is obviously that of Vergil; the flowing cursive Italic hand is identical to that of Vergil’s other works. A possible explanation for Veterani's note is that Vergil left it in Veterani's care, who inscribed the colophon to associate it with Veterani's other treasures. This way, it would not be lost or damaged during the Papal invasion in Urbino in 1516. Small, isolated notes in Veterani's hand are also found throughout the manuscript, but these are nearly all directions to a binder or printer. It is therefore probable that Vergil asked Veterani to prepare the work for a printer or to make a fair copy. The latter is the more probable possibility: Vergil would probably have wanted to present a fine manuscript to Henry VIII instead of a printed book and since Veterani was the most famous copyist of the time it would make sense that Vergil asked him to do it. Whether or not this actually happened cannot be said with certainty, because such a copy by Veterani was never found. The manuscript of the Anglica Historia is divided into a number of books. Book I-VI describe the early history up to the Norman conquest. Book VII accounts for William I and William II. The following books describe one reign per book, ending with the beginning of Henry VIII’s reign in book XXV up to 1513.
In 1534 the first printed version of the work appeared, a folio with decorations from John Bebel’s press in Basle. While this edition was similar to the manuscript, the changes were too rigorous to be described as rewriting; rather Vergil made a fresh start with the manuscript as a guideline. The main draft of this rewritten version has most likely taken place between 1521 and 1524; a phrase such as 'to this day, which is 1524' is an indication. Another is that he refers to having been archdeacon of Wells for fourteen years, suggesting 1521, since he was collated in 1507. The contents and style of the work was adjusted and, moreover, book VII in the manuscript was split into two parts: VII and a new VIII. The following books were numbered anew. The new book VIII was devoted entirely to Harold; similarly, the first two Norman kings were given their own book: IX. The first print now had two more books and ended with Henry VII in book XXVI in up to 1509.
In the Anglica Historia Vergil opens with a passage heavily influenced by Caesar
's Commentarii de Bello Gallico
:
In an early English translation, this is rendered as:
A new edition appeared in 1545. This version also ended in 1509, but it was considerably revised. These revisions were party the improvement of statements that had become politically undesirable, partly the notices of English institutions for English readers, but mostly to improve the Latin for European readers.
The third edition was published in 1555, the year of Vergil’s death. The alterations were less drastic, only stylistic and far less in number than the earlier two revisions. The importance of this edition is that it includes an account of Henry VIII’s reign up to 1537. The reason why he chose 1537 as the end of his account is as follows. Vergil claims that most of his work on the last book was done contemporaneously and that the work was interrupted by a visit to Italy. This must refer to his visit to Italy in 1533 and correspondingly, the period from 1530-1537 is treated cursorily. Denys Hay
finds it reasonable to suppose that at first Vergil planned this book to describe events up to 1530, but that he postponed the publication of it due to the political uncertainties in England, enabling Vergil to extend the date of the ending.
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
historian
Historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is...
, otherwise known as PV Castellensis. He is better known as the contemporary historian during the early Tudor dynasty. He was hired by King Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
, who wanted to distance himself from his father Henry VII
Henry VII of England
Henry VII was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor....
as much as possible, to document both his and his father's lives. Naturally, the historical accuracy has come into question especially concerning Henry VII. However, his work is still seen as important as he was one of the few to have a degree of access to Henry VIII
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
and so his work is still frequently used.
Life
Polydore Vergil was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of Castro in EtruriaEtruria
Etruria—usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia—was a region of Central Italy, an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium, Emilia-Romagna, and Umbria. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H...
. His father's name is said to have been George Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, "a man well skilled in medicine and astrology," had practiced philosophy at the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
, as did Polydore's own brother and protege John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia
Pavia
Pavia , the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It is the capital of the province of Pavia. It has a population of c. 71,000...
, in 1517. His third brother was a merchant in London.
Polydore was born at Urbino
Urbino
Urbino is a walled city in the Marche region of Italy, south-west of Pesaro, a World Heritage Site notable for a remarkable historical legacy of independent Renaissance culture, especially under the patronage of Federico da Montefeltro, duke of Urbino from 1444 to 1482...
, is said to have been educated at and was probably in the service of Guido Ubaldo, Duke of Urbino, before 1498, as in the dedication of his first work, Liber Proverbiorum (April 1498), he styles himself this prince's client. Polydore's second book, De Inventoribus Rerum, is dedicated to Guido's tutor, Ludovicus Odaxius, from Urbino, in August 1499. After a period as chamberlain to Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI , born Roderic Llançol i Borja was Pope from 1492 until his death on 18 August 1503. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, and his Italianized surname—Borgia—became a byword for the debased standards of the Papacy of that era, most notoriously the Banquet...
he came to England in 1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence
Peter's Pence
Peter's Pence is payment made more or less voluntarily to the Roman Catholic Church. It began under the Saxons in England and is seen in other countries. Though formally discontinued in England at the time of the Reformation, a post-Reformation payment of uncertain characteristics is seen in some...
for the cardinal. As Hadrian's proxy, he was enthroned Bishop of Bath and Wells
Bishop of Bath and Wells
The Bishop of Bath and Wells heads the Church of England Diocese of Bath and Wells in the Province of Canterbury in England.The present diocese covers the vast majority of the county of Somerset and a small area of Dorset. The Episcopal seat is located in the Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew in...
in October 1504. It was at the instigation of King Henry VII of England
Henry VII of England
Henry VII was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor....
that he commenced his Historia Anglica--a work which, though apparently begun as early as 1505, was not completed till August 1533, the date of its dedication to Henry VIII
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
, and was not published till 1534.
In May 1514 Polydore and his patron, the cardinal, were found supporting Wolsey's claims to the cardinalship, but he had lost Wolsey's favor before the year was out. A rash letter, reflecting severely on Henry VIII and Wolsey, was intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore was cast into prison and supplanted in his collectorship (March and April). He had some powerful supporters; Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X , born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was the Pope from 1513 to his death in 1521. He was the last non-priest to be elected Pope. He is known for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica and his challenging of Martin Luther's 95 Theses...
wrote to the king on his behalf. From prison he sent an abject and almost blasphemous letter to the offended minister, begging that the fast approaching Christmas—a time which witnessed the restitution of a world—might see his pardon also. He was freed before Christmas 1515, though he never regained his collectorship. In 1525 he published the first edition of Gildas
Gildas
Gildas was a 6th-century British cleric. He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during this period. His renowned learning and literary style earned him the designation Gildas Sapiens...
, dedicating the work to Cuthbert Tunstall
Cuthbert Tunstall
Cuthbert Tunstall was an English Scholastic, church leader, diplomat, administrator and royal adviser...
, Bishop of London
Bishop of London
The Bishop of London is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury.The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey...
.
Next year his Liber de Prodigiis appeared, dedicated to Francesco Maria
Francesco Maria I della Rovere
Francesco Maria I della Rovere was an Italian condottiero, who was Duke of Urbino from 1508 until 1538.- Biography :...
, Duke of Urbino. Around 1538 Polydore left England and returned to Italy for some time. He claimed that ill-health prevented him on his return from making his daily notes on contemporary events. About the end of 1551 he went home to Urbino, where he appeared to have died in 1555. He had been naturalized an Englishman on 22 October 1510, and had held several clerical appointments in England. In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513 prebendary of Oxgate in St Paul's Cathedral
St Paul's Cathedral
St Paul's Cathedral, London, is a Church of England cathedral and seat of the Bishop of London. Its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604. St Paul's sits at the top of Ludgate Hill, the highest point in the City of London, and is the mother...
, both of which offices he held after his return to Urbino.
The first edition of the Historia Anglica (twenty-six books) was printed at Basel
Basel
Basel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
in 1534; the twenty-seventh book, dealing with the reign of Henry VIII down to the birth of Edward VI
Edward VI of England
Edward VI was the King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first monarch who was raised as a Protestant...
, was added to the third edition of 1555. Polydore claims to have been very careful in collecting materials for this work, and to have used foreign as well as English historians. For this reason, he remarks, the English, Scots and French will find things reported in his pages far differently from the way they are used to hearing them within their own countries. In his search for information he applied to James IV of Scotland
James IV of Scotland
James IV was King of Scots from 11 June 1488 to his death. He is generally regarded as the most successful of the Stewart monarchs of Scotland, but his reign ended with the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Flodden Field, where he became the last monarch from not only Scotland, but also from all...
for a list of the Scottish kings and their annals; but not even his friendship with Gavin Douglas
Gavin Douglas
Gavin Douglas was a Scottish bishop, makar and translator. Although he had an important political career, it is for his poetry that he is now chiefly remembered. His principal pioneering achievement was the Eneados, a full and faithful vernacular translation of the Aeneid of Virgil and the first...
could make him accept the historical theories of the latter, who traced the pedigree of the Scots down from the banished son of an Athenian king and Scotta the daughter of the Egyptian tyrant of the Israelites.
A similar scepticism made him doubt the veracity of Geoffrey of Monmouth
Geoffrey of Monmouth
Geoffrey of Monmouth was a cleric and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur...
, and thus called forth John Leland's Defensso Gallofridi and Assertio Incomparabilis Arturii. This doubting instinct led to his being accused of many offences against learning, such as that of burning cartloads of manuscripts lest his errors should be discovered, of stealing books from libraries and shipping them off to Rome. It is mainly from the time of Henry VI
Henry VI of England
Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...
, where contemporary records begin to fail, that Polydore's work is useful. He must have been personally acquainted with many men whose memories went back to the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses
The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York...
. John Sherren Brewer
John Sherren Brewer
John Sherren Brewer was an English clergyman, historian and scholar. He was a brother of E. Cobham Brewer, compiler of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase & Fable.- Birth and education :Born in Norwich, the son of a Baptist schoolmaster...
was one of the first to shed doubt on his reliability as an authority for the reign of Henry VIII, and indeed his spite against Wolsey is evident; but it is impossible to read his social and geographical accounts of England and Scotland without gratitude for a writer who has preserved so many interesting details.
Polydore's Adagia (Venice, April 1498) was the first collection of Latin proverbs ever printed; it preceded Erasmus's by two years, and the slight misunderstanding that arose for the moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship. A second series of Biblical proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to Wolsey's follower, Richard Pace
Richard Pace
Richard Pace was an English diplomat of the Tudor period. He was educated at Winchester College under Thomas Langton, and later at Padua, at Bologna, and probably at the University of Oxford...
, and is preceded by an interesting letter sent in June 1519, which gives the names of many of Polydore's English friends, from More
Thomas More
Sir Thomas More , also known by Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important councillor to Henry VIII of England and, for three years toward the end of his life, Lord Chancellor...
and Archbishop Warham
William Warham
William Warham , Archbishop of Canterbury, belonged to a Hampshire family, and was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and teaching law both in London and Oxford....
to Linacre
Thomas Linacre
Thomas Linacre was a humanist scholar and physician, after whom Linacre College, Oxford and Linacre House The King's School, Canterbury are named....
and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus, treating of the origin of all things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted of only seven books, but was increased to eight in 1521. It was exceedingly popular, and was quickly translated into French (1521), German (1537), English (1546) and Spanish (1551). All editions, however, except those following the text sanctioned by Gregory XIII
Pope Gregory XIII
Pope Gregory XIII , born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope from 1572 to 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake for the Gregorian calendar, which remains the internationally-accepted civil calendar to this date.-Youth:He was born the son of Cristoforo Boncompagni and wife Angela...
in 1576, are on the Index Expurgatorius.
The De Prodigiis also achieved great popularity, and was translated into Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550). This treatise takes the form of a Latin dialogue between Polydore and his Cambridge friend Robert Ridley. It takes place in the open air, at Polydore's country house near London. Polydore's duty is to state the problems and supply the historical illustrations; his friend's to explain, rationalize and depreciate as best he can. Here, as in the Historia Anglica, it is plain that the writer prides himself on the excellence of his Latin, which in Sir Henry Ellis's opinion is purer than that of any of his contemporaries.
Works
- Liber Proverbiorum
- De inventoribus rerum (On Discovery), Latin Text and English translation, 2002 ISBN 0-674-00789-1
- Liber de Prodigiis
- Historia Anglica
Vergil published his first work in 1496. It was an edition of Perotti’s commentary on Martial
Martial
Marcus Valerius Martialis , was a Latin poet from Hispania best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan...
, the Cornucopiae. Two years later Vergil published his Prouerbium Libellus, or Adagia, and in 1499 the Inuentoribus Rerum appeared. After he had withdrawn from politics Vergil worked on his literary works and produced an expanded version of the Inuentoribus Rerum in 1521. At the same time a revision and expansion of the Prouerbium Libellus was produced. He completed an entirely new project in 1525: Vergil’s edition of Gildas
Gildas
Gildas was a 6th-century British cleric. He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during this period. His renowned learning and literary style earned him the designation Gildas Sapiens...
was published. In 1526 the Adagia was revised. At Erasmus’ request, Vergil worked on a translation of Dio Chrysostom's
Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom , Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus was a Greek orator, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. Eighty of his Discourses are extant, as well as a few Letters and a funny mock essay In Praise of Hair, as well as a few other fragments...
De Perfecto Monacho, which Vergil published in 1530, followed by the Dialogi de Prodigiis. In 1534, then, the first edition of the Anglica Historia was printed in Basle. In 1545, Vergil published a collection of dialogues: De Patienta, de Vita Perfecta, de Veritate et Mendacio. In 1546 a second version of the Anglica Historia appeared and a third edition was published in 1555, expanded with the account of events from 1509-1537.
All above mentioned works contain historical matter, but only three are historical in nature. They are the De Inuentoribus Rerum, his edition of Gildas and the Anglica Historia.
De Inuentoribus Rerum
The De Inuentoribus Rerum was written in only three months in 1499. It described in three books the 'first begetters' of all human activities. In book I, the origin of the gods and the word 'god' was investigated. Furthermore, it discussed matters such as the creation, marriage and religion. The second book covered, amongst other topics, law and military science, but also money and precious metals. The third book went on about business for farmers, architects and commercial activities. Since the book was immensely popular, Vergil added five more books devoted to the initia institorum rei Christianae. Vergil thought that this addition would probably be a popular one, but it served another, perhaps more important purpose: it was a concession towards the Christian community who had labelled the De Inuentoribus Rerum a work of heretics and depravity. The most interesting thing about Vergil’s work is not the criticism of indulgences or the scholasticism; it is the immense industry that went into the compilation and Vergil's way of anticipating modern developments, such as the scientific approach to religion; this shows that Vergil was ahead of other writers in his time. Vergil himself regarded the Inuentoribus Rerum and the Adagia as his masterpieces. It is these two works, rather than the Anglica Historia, that made Vergil a celebrity in both England and the continent. His later fame is also based on these two works.Gildas …de calamitate, excidio et conquestu Britanniae
His edition of GildasGildas
Gildas was a 6th-century British cleric. He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during this period. His renowned learning and literary style earned him the designation Gildas Sapiens...
' 6th-century work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae
De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae
De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae is a work by the 6th-century British cleric Gildas. It is a sermon in three parts condemning the acts of Gildas' contemporaries, both secular and religious, whom he blames for the dire state of affairs in sub-Roman Britain...
is the first critical edition of a British historical text. By publishing this edition, Vergil reflected a growing interest in post-classical texts among German and Italian scholars. This interest sprang mainly from self-conscious nationalism which makes it curious at least that a foreigner chose a text about Britain. Vergil did, however, have a motive; this project provided a background for his anti-Arthurian position. The text was edited by Bishop Tunstall and Robert Ridley who altered the text to make the sense plainer and emended some anti-clerical passages leaving the text somewhat disfigured. The text was finally published in 1525.
Anglica Historia
The Anglica Historia was written in 1512-13. Eventually, four distinct versions in total were published:- Manuscript written in 1512-13: covering events up to 1513 (MS)
- First edition, Basle, 1534, fol.: covering events up to 1509 (A)
- Second edition, Basle, 1546, fol.: covering events up to 1509 (B)
- Third edition, Basle, 1555, fol.: covering events up to 1537 (C)
The manuscript is now in the Vatican Library. The two volumes it is contained in were presented to the ducal library at Urbino in 1613 by Vergil’s grand-nephew. Although he stated in the preface that it was of the hand of Polydore Vergil, there has been some debate about the authorship of the work. In the past the Anglica Historia has sometimes been attributed to Federico Veterani. This misunderstanding was brought into the world by the terms of a colophon in the second manuscript volume, which was in a completely different handwriting. It states: 'I, Federico Veterani, wrote the whole work'. The hand in which the rest of the manuscript is written, however, is obviously that of Vergil; the flowing cursive Italic hand is identical to that of Vergil’s other works. A possible explanation for Veterani's note is that Vergil left it in Veterani's care, who inscribed the colophon to associate it with Veterani's other treasures. This way, it would not be lost or damaged during the Papal invasion in Urbino in 1516. Small, isolated notes in Veterani's hand are also found throughout the manuscript, but these are nearly all directions to a binder or printer. It is therefore probable that Vergil asked Veterani to prepare the work for a printer or to make a fair copy. The latter is the more probable possibility: Vergil would probably have wanted to present a fine manuscript to Henry VIII instead of a printed book and since Veterani was the most famous copyist of the time it would make sense that Vergil asked him to do it. Whether or not this actually happened cannot be said with certainty, because such a copy by Veterani was never found. The manuscript of the Anglica Historia is divided into a number of books. Book I-VI describe the early history up to the Norman conquest. Book VII accounts for William I and William II. The following books describe one reign per book, ending with the beginning of Henry VIII’s reign in book XXV up to 1513.
In 1534 the first printed version of the work appeared, a folio with decorations from John Bebel’s press in Basle. While this edition was similar to the manuscript, the changes were too rigorous to be described as rewriting; rather Vergil made a fresh start with the manuscript as a guideline. The main draft of this rewritten version has most likely taken place between 1521 and 1524; a phrase such as 'to this day, which is 1524' is an indication. Another is that he refers to having been archdeacon of Wells for fourteen years, suggesting 1521, since he was collated in 1507. The contents and style of the work was adjusted and, moreover, book VII in the manuscript was split into two parts: VII and a new VIII. The following books were numbered anew. The new book VIII was devoted entirely to Harold; similarly, the first two Norman kings were given their own book: IX. The first print now had two more books and ended with Henry VII in book XXVI in up to 1509.
In the Anglica Historia Vergil opens with a passage heavily influenced by Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
's Commentarii de Bello Gallico
Commentarii de Bello Gallico
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting local armies in Gaul that opposed Roman domination.The "Gaul" that Caesar...
:
Britannia omnis...diuiditur in partes quatuor: quarum unam incolunt Angli, aliam Scoti, tertiam Vualli, quartam Cornubienses. Hi omnes uel lingua; uel moribus seu institutis inter se differunt.
In an early English translation, this is rendered as:
The whole Countrie of Britaine...is divided into iiij partes ; wherof the one is inhabited of EnglishmenEnglish peopleThe English are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens...
, the other of ScottesScottish peopleThe Scottish people , or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, incorporating neighbouring Britons to the south as well as invading Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.In modern use,...
, the third of WallshemenWelsh peopleThe Welsh people are an ethnic group and nation associated with Wales and the Welsh language.John Davies argues that the origin of the "Welsh nation" can be traced to the late 4th and early 5th centuries, following the Roman departure from Britain, although Brythonic Celtic languages seem to have...
, and the fowerth of Cornishe peopleCornish peopleThe Cornish are a people associated with Cornwall, a county and Duchy in the south-west of the United Kingdom that is seen in some respects as distinct from England, having more in common with the other Celtic parts of the United Kingdom such as Wales, as well as with other Celtic nations in Europe...
. Which all differ emonge them selves, either in tongue, either in manners, or ells in lawes and ordinaunces."
A new edition appeared in 1545. This version also ended in 1509, but it was considerably revised. These revisions were party the improvement of statements that had become politically undesirable, partly the notices of English institutions for English readers, but mostly to improve the Latin for European readers.
The third edition was published in 1555, the year of Vergil’s death. The alterations were less drastic, only stylistic and far less in number than the earlier two revisions. The importance of this edition is that it includes an account of Henry VIII’s reign up to 1537. The reason why he chose 1537 as the end of his account is as follows. Vergil claims that most of his work on the last book was done contemporaneously and that the work was interrupted by a visit to Italy. This must refer to his visit to Italy in 1533 and correspondingly, the period from 1530-1537 is treated cursorily. Denys Hay
Denys Hay
Denys Hay was a historian specializing in medieval and Renaissance Europe, and notable for demonstrating the influence of Italy on events in the rest of the continent....
finds it reasonable to suppose that at first Vergil planned this book to describe events up to 1530, but that he postponed the publication of it due to the political uncertainties in England, enabling Vergil to extend the date of the ending.
Further reading
- Catherine Atkinson, Inventing inventors in Renaissance Europe. Polydore Vergil's De inventoribus rerum (Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2007).
- Denys HayDenys HayDenys Hay was a historian specializing in medieval and Renaissance Europe, and notable for demonstrating the influence of Italy on events in the rest of the continent....
, Polydore Vergil: Renaissance Historian and Man of Letters (Clarendon Press, 1952)
List of selected works
- On Discovery. Edited and translated by Brian P. Copenhaver. The I Tatti Renaissance Library. Cambridge MA: Harvard University PressHarvard University PressHarvard University Press is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. Its current director is William P...
, 2002. Latin text; facing English translation.
Texts of Polydore Vergil
- Anglica Historia, Latin text and English translation (ed. and trans. Dana J. Sutton, 2005) in the Library of Humanistic Texts at the Philological Museum of University of BirminghamUniversity of BirminghamThe University of Birmingham is a British Redbrick university located in the city of Birmingham, England. It received its royal charter in 1900 as a successor to Birmingham Medical School and Mason Science College . Birmingham was the first Redbrick university to gain a charter and thus...
's Shakespeare Institute
Secondary material
- Haywood, Eric, Humanism’s priorities and empire’s prerogatives: Polydore Vergil’s description of Ireland, Proceedings of the Royal Irish AcademyRoyal Irish AcademyThe Royal Irish Academy , based in Dublin, is an all-Ireland, independent, academic body that promotes study and excellence in the sciences, humanities and social sciences. It is one of Ireland's premier learned societies and cultural institutions and currently has around 420 Members, elected in...
Vol. 109C, 195–237.