Pop music automation
Encyclopedia
Pop Music Automation is a field of study among musicians and computer scientists with a goal of producing successful pop music
algorithmically. It is often based on the premise that pop music is especially formulaic, unchanging, and easy to compose. The idea of automating pop music composition is related to many ideas in algorithmic music, Artificial Intelligence
(AI) and computational creativity
.
s (or, at the very least, formal sets of rules) have been used to compose music for centuries; the procedures used to plot voice-leading in Western counterpoint
, for example, can often be reduced to algorithmic determinacy. Now the term is usually reserved, however, for the use of formal procedures to make music without human intervention.
Classical music automation software exists that generates music in the style of Mozart and Bach
and jazz
. Most notably, David Cope
has written a software system called "Experiments in Musical Intelligence" (or "EMI") that is capable of analyzing and generalizing from existing music by a human composer to generate novel musical compositions in the same style. EMI's output is convincing enough to persuade human listeners that its music is human-generated to a high level of competence.
Creativity research in jazz has focused on the process of improvisation and the cognitive demands that this places on a musical agent: reasoning about time, remembering and conceptualizing what has already been played, and planning ahead for what might be played next.
Inevitably associated with Pop music automation is Pop music analysis
.
Projects in Pop music automation may include, but are not limited to, ideas in melody creation and song development, vocal generation or improvement, automatic accompaniment and lyric composition.
An example is a Microsoft Research project called MySong, which trains a Hidden Markov Model using a music database and uses that
model to select chords for new melodies.
, the states of the system become note or pitch values, and a probability vector
for each note is constructed, completing a transition probability matrix (see below). An algorithm is constructed to produce and output note values based on the transition matrix weightings, which could be MIDI note values, frequency (Hz
), or any other desirable metric.
A second-order Markov chain can be introduced by considering the current state and also the previous state, as indicated in the second table. Higher, nth-order chains tend to "group" particular notes together, while 'breaking off' into other patterns and sequences occasionally. These higher-order chains tend to generate results with a sense of phrasal
structure, rather than the 'aimless wandering' produced by a first-order system.
This involves natural language processing
.
Pablo Gervás has developed a noteworthy system called ASPERA that employs a case-based reasoning
(CBR) approach to generating poetic formulations of a given input text via a composition of poetic fragments that are retrieved from a case-base of existing poems. Each poem fragment in the ASPERA case-base is annotated with a prose string that expresses the meaning of the fragment, and this prose string is used as the retrieval key for each fragment. Metrical
rules are then used to combine these fragments into a well-formed poetic structure.
Programs like TALE-SPIN
and The MINSTREL system represent a complex elaboration of this basis approach, distinguishing a range of character-level goals in the story from a range of author-level goals for the story. Systems like Bringsjord's BRUTUScan create stories with complex inter-personal themes like betrayal.
On-line metaphor generation systems like 'Sardonicus' or 'Aristotle' can suggest lexical metaphors for a given descriptive goal (e.g., to describe a supermodel as skinny, the source terms “pencil”, “whip”, “whippet”, “rope”, “stick-insect” and “snake” are suggested).
Using a language database (such as wordnet
) one can create musings on a subject that may be weak grammatically but are still sensical. See such projects as the Flowerewolf automatic poetry generator or the
Dada engine.
Pop music
Pop music is usually understood to be commercially recorded music, often oriented toward a youth market, usually consisting of relatively short, simple songs utilizing technological innovations to produce new variations on existing themes.- Definitions :David Hatch and Stephen Millward define pop...
algorithmically. It is often based on the premise that pop music is especially formulaic, unchanging, and easy to compose. The idea of automating pop music composition is related to many ideas in algorithmic music, Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its...
(AI) and computational creativity
Computational creativity
Computational creativity is a multidisciplinary endeavour that is located at the intersection of the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, philosophy, and the arts.The goal of computational creativity is to model, simulate or replicate creativity using a computer, to...
.
Overview - Automation in Music
AlgorithmAlgorithm
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning...
s (or, at the very least, formal sets of rules) have been used to compose music for centuries; the procedures used to plot voice-leading in Western counterpoint
Counterpoint
In music, counterpoint is the relationship between two or more voices that are independent in contour and rhythm and are harmonically interdependent . It has been most commonly identified in classical music, developing strongly during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period,...
, for example, can often be reduced to algorithmic determinacy. Now the term is usually reserved, however, for the use of formal procedures to make music without human intervention.
Classical music automation software exists that generates music in the style of Mozart and Bach
Bạch
Bạch is a Vietnamese surname. The name is transliterated as Bai in Chinese and Baek, in Korean.Bach is the anglicized variation of the surname Bạch.-Notable people with the surname Bạch:* Bạch Liêu...
and jazz
Jazz
Jazz is a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States. It was born out of a mix of African and European music traditions. From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and 20th...
. Most notably, David Cope
David Cope
David Cope is an American author, composer, scientist, and professor emeritus of music at the University of California, Santa Cruz...
has written a software system called "Experiments in Musical Intelligence" (or "EMI") that is capable of analyzing and generalizing from existing music by a human composer to generate novel musical compositions in the same style. EMI's output is convincing enough to persuade human listeners that its music is human-generated to a high level of competence.
Creativity research in jazz has focused on the process of improvisation and the cognitive demands that this places on a musical agent: reasoning about time, remembering and conceptualizing what has already been played, and planning ahead for what might be played next.
Inevitably associated with Pop music automation is Pop music analysis
Musical analysis
Musical analysis is the attempt to answer the question how does this music work?. The method employed to answer this question, and indeed exactly what is meant by the question, differs from analyst to analyst, and according to the purpose of the analysis. According to Ian Bent , analysis is "an...
.
Projects in Pop music automation may include, but are not limited to, ideas in melody creation and song development, vocal generation or improvement, automatic accompaniment and lyric composition.
Automatic Accompaniment
Some systems exist that automatically choose chords to accompany a vocal melody in real-time. A user with no musical experience can create a song with instrumental accompaniment just by singing into a microphone.An example is a Microsoft Research project called MySong, which trains a Hidden Markov Model using a music database and uses that
model to select chords for new melodies.
Melody Generation
Automatic melody generation is often done with a Markov chainMarkov chain
A Markov chain, named after Andrey Markov, is a mathematical system that undergoes transitions from one state to another, between a finite or countable number of possible states. It is a random process characterized as memoryless: the next state depends only on the current state and not on the...
, the states of the system become note or pitch values, and a probability vector
Probability vector
Stochastic vector redirects here. For the concept of a random vector, see Multivariate random variable.In mathematics and statistics, a probability vector or stochastic vector is a vector with non-negative entries that add up to one....
for each note is constructed, completing a transition probability matrix (see below). An algorithm is constructed to produce and output note values based on the transition matrix weightings, which could be MIDI note values, frequency (Hz
Hertz
The hertz is the SI unit of frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon. One of its most common uses is the description of the sine wave, particularly those used in radio and audio applications....
), or any other desirable metric.
| Note | A | C# | Eb |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | 0.1 | 0.6 | 0.3 |
| C# | 0.25 | 0.05 | 0.7 |
| Eb | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0 |
| Note | A | D | G |
|---|---|---|---|
| AA | 0.18 | 0.6 | 0.22 |
| AD | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 |
| AG | 0.15 | 0.75 | 0.1 |
| DD | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| DA | 0.25 | 0 | 0.75 |
| DG | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0 |
| GG | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 |
| GA | 0.5 | 0.25 | 0.25 |
| GD | 1 | 0 | 0 |
A second-order Markov chain can be introduced by considering the current state and also the previous state, as indicated in the second table. Higher, nth-order chains tend to "group" particular notes together, while 'breaking off' into other patterns and sequences occasionally. These higher-order chains tend to generate results with a sense of phrasal
Phrase (music)
In music and music theory, phrase and phrasing are concepts and practices related to grouping consecutive melodic notes, both in their composition and performance...
structure, rather than the 'aimless wandering' produced by a first-order system.
Lyric Composition
Automated lyric creating software may take forms such as:- Parsing existing Pop music (for content or word choice e.g.)
This involves natural language processing
Natural language processing
Natural language processing is a field of computer science and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human languages; it began as a branch of artificial intelligence....
.
Pablo Gervás has developed a noteworthy system called ASPERA that employs a case-based reasoning
Case-based reasoning
Case-based reasoning , broadly construed, is the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems. An auto mechanic who fixes an engine by recalling another car that exhibited similar symptoms is using case-based reasoning...
(CBR) approach to generating poetic formulations of a given input text via a composition of poetic fragments that are retrieved from a case-base of existing poems. Each poem fragment in the ASPERA case-base is annotated with a prose string that expresses the meaning of the fragment, and this prose string is used as the retrieval key for each fragment. Metrical
Meter (poetry)
In poetry, metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order. The study of metres and forms of versification is known as prosody...
rules are then used to combine these fragments into a well-formed poetic structure.
- Automatic analogy or story creation
Programs like TALE-SPIN
and The MINSTREL system represent a complex elaboration of this basis approach, distinguishing a range of character-level goals in the story from a range of author-level goals for the story. Systems like Bringsjord's BRUTUScan create stories with complex inter-personal themes like betrayal.
On-line metaphor generation systems like 'Sardonicus' or 'Aristotle' can suggest lexical metaphors for a given descriptive goal (e.g., to describe a supermodel as skinny, the source terms “pencil”, “whip”, “whippet”, “rope”, “stick-insect” and “snake” are suggested).
- Free association of grouped words
Using a language database (such as wordnet
WordNet
WordNet is a lexical database for the English language. It groups English words into sets of synonyms called synsets, provides short, general definitions, and records the various semantic relations between these synonym sets...
) one can create musings on a subject that may be weak grammatically but are still sensical. See such projects as the Flowerewolf automatic poetry generator or the
Dada engine.
More or less free
- BreathCube by xoxos. Simple lyrical vocal content is generated with simple music.
- CubeBreath by xoxos. Audio input is vocoded in tune with the music.
- Midi Internet Algorithmic Composition
- infno - Infinite generator of electronic dance music and synth pop.
Commercial
- Band in a box generates any element, potentially creates whole new songs from scratch.
- Musical Palette - Melody Composing Tool
- MySong:Automatic Accompaniment for Vocal Melodies
- Ludwig 3.0 automatic accompaniment, writes arrangements for given instruments, plays its own songs for an infinitely long time.