Puerto Rican independence movement - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Puerto Rican independence movement
First row Antonio Valero de Bernabe Antonio Valero de Bernabe Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé , aka The Liberator from Puerto Rico, was a military leader who fought for the independence of South America together with Simón Bolívar and who wanted the independence of Puerto Rico... Ramón Emeterio Betances Ramón Emeterio Betances Ramón Emeterio Betances y Alacán was a Puerto Rican nationalist. He was the primary instigator of the Grito de Lares revolution, and as such, is considered to be the father of the Puerto Rican independence movement... Mariana Bracetti Mariana Bracetti Mariana Bracetti was a patriot and leader of the Puerto Rico independence movement in the 1860s. She is attributed with having knitted the flag that was intended to be used as the national emblem of Puerto Rico in its attempt to overthrow the Spanish government on the island, and to establish the... Second row Antonio Mattei Lluberas Antonio Mattei Lluberas Antonio Mattei Lluberas , was a businessman and politician who in 1897 planned and led the second and last major uprising against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, known as the Intentona de Yauco.-Early years:... José de Diego José de Diego José de Diego y Martínez , known as "The Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement", was a statesman, journalist, poet, lawyer, and advocate for Puerto Rico's independence from Spain and from the United States.... Pedro Albizu Campos Pedro Albizu Campos Don Pedro Albizu Campos was a Puerto Rican politician and one of the leading figures in the Puerto Rican independence movement. He was the leader and president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from 1930 until his death... Third row Lolita Lebrón Lolita Lebrón Dolores "Lolita" Lebrón Sotomayor was a Puerto Rican nationalist who wasconvicted of attempted murder and other crimes after leading an assault on the United States House of Representatives in 1954,... Gilberto Concepción de Gracia Gilberto Concepción de Gracia Dr. Gilberto Concepción de Gracia was a lawyer, journalist, author, politician and founder of the Puerto Rican Independence Party.-Early years:Concepción de Gracia was born in the town of Vega Alta, Puerto Rico... Filiberto Ojeda Ríos Filiberto Ojeda Ríos Filiberto Ojeda Ríos was the commander-in-chief of the Boricua Popular Army , a clandestine paramilitary organization that considers United States rule over Puerto Rico to be oppressive colonization and advocates the latter's independence.Ojeda Ríos was a...

The Puerto Rican independence movement (Movimiento de la Independencia Puertorriqueña) refers to initiatives throughout the history of Puerto Rico

History of Puerto Rico

The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the archipelago of Puerto Rico by the Ortoiroid people between 3000 and 2000 BC. Other tribes, such as the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New...

aimed at obtaining independence

Independence

Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....

for the Island

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...

, first from Spain

Spanish Empire

The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....

, and then from the United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

. The movement is not localized to one group of individuals or even one organization throughout the years, but represents instead the events and activities of dozens of groups and organizations, and thousands of individuals, that share the common goal of advocating, supporting, or seeking political independence for Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

.

Since the beginning of the 19th century, the independence movement in Puerto Rico has used both peaceful, political means as well as violent, revolutionary approaches in search of its objectives. Organized political movements have existed since the mid-19th century and have advocated independence of the Island, first from Spain (in the 19th century) and then from the United States (from 1898 to the present day). Today, a spectrum of autonomous

Autonomy

Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...

, nationalist, and independence

Independence

Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....

sentiments and political parties

Political party

A political party is a political organization that typically seeks to influence government policy, usually by nominating their own candidates and trying to seat them in political office. Parties participate in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions...

exist in the Island.

Revolts by the Tainos

Modern

Modern history

Modern history, or the modern era, describes the historical timeline after the Middle Ages. Modern history can be further broken down into the early modern period and the late modern period after the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution...

Puerto Rican independence movements can be traced back to the 16th century with the Taíno rebellion of 1511 led by Agüeybaná II.

In this revolt, Agüeybaná II, the most powerful cacique

Cacique

Cacique is a title derived from the Taíno word for the pre-Columbian chiefs or leaders of tribes in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles...

in the island at the time, together with Urayoán

Urayoán

Urayoán was a Taíno "Cacique" famous for ordering the drowning of Diego Salcedo to determine if the Spanish were gods.He was the cacique of "Yucayeque del Yagüeka or Yagueca", a region that presently spans between Añasco and Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. In 1511, Urayoán and Agüeybaná II conceived a...

, cacique of Añasco

Añasco, Puerto Rico

Añasco , named after one of its settlers, Don Luis de Añasco, is a municipality of Puerto Rico located on the west coast of the island bordering the Mona Passage to the west, north of Mayagüez, and Las Marias; south of Rincón, Aguada, and Moca and west of San Sebastián and Las Marias...

, organized a revolt against the Spaniards in the southern and western parts of the island in 1511. He was joined by Guarionex

Guarionex

Guarionex was a Taíno cacique from the cacicazgo of Maguá in the island of Hispaniola. The later Spanish colonization of the island pushed thousands of indians to other neighboring islands such as Borikén to where he fled....

, cacique of Utuado

Utuado, Puerto Rico

Utuado is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the central-western mountainous region of the island known as La Cordillera Central. It is located north of Adjuntas and Ponce; south of Hatillo and Arecibo; east of Lares; and west of Ciales and Jayuya. In land area it is the third-largest...

, who attacked the village of Sotomayor (present day Aguada

Aguada, Puerto Rico

Aguada is a municipality of Puerto Rico, located in the western coastal valley region bordering the Atlantic Ocean, west of Rincón, Aguadilla and Moca; and north of Anasco. It is part of the Aguadilla-Isabela-San Sebastián Metropolitan Statistical Area...

) and killed eighty of its Spanish inhabitants. Juan Ponce de León then led the Spaniards in a series of offensives that culminated in the Battle of Yagüecas. Agüeybaná II's people, who were only armed with spears, bows, and arrows, were no match for the better armed Spanish forces, and Agüeybaná II was shot and killed in the battle. The revolt ultimately failed and many Taínos either committed suicide or left the island.

Revolts by criollos

Several revolts against the Spanish rulers by the native born, or "criollos", occurred in the 19th century. These include the conspiracy at San Germán

San Germán, Puerto Rico

San Germán is a municipality located in the southwestern region of Puerto Rico, south of Mayagüez and Maricao; north of Lajas; east of Hormigueros and Cabo Rojo; and west of Sabana Grande. San Germán is spread over 18 wards and San Germán Pueblo...

in 1809 to the uprisings of Ciales

Ciales, Puerto Rico

Ciales is a municipality of Puerto Rico, located on the Central Mountain Range, northwest of Orocovis; south of Florida and Manatí; east of Utuado and Jayuya; and west of Morovis. Ciales is spread over eight wards and Ciales Pueblo...

, San Germán and Sabana Grande

Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico

Sabana Grande is a municipality of Puerto Rico located north of Lajas and Guánica; south of Maricao; east of San Germán; and west of Yauco. Sabana Grande is spread over seven wards and Sabana Grande Pueblo...

in 1898.

Many Puerto Ricans became inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar

Simón Bolívar

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...

to liberate South America from Spanish rule with the intention of creating a federation which would include Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among those who were inspired were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé

Antonio Valero de Bernabe

Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé , aka The Liberator from Puerto Rico, was a military leader who fought for the independence of South America together with Simón Bolívar and who wanted the independence of Puerto Rico...

also known as "The Liberator from Puerto Rico". Valero de Bernabé was a military leader who fought for the independence of South America together with Simón Bolívar and who wanted the independence of Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

. He was an advocate of the formation of a confederation of Latin America

Latin America

Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...

n nations. Another patriot who was inspired with the ideals of independence was María de las Mercedes Barbudo

María de las Mercedes Barbudo

María de las Mercedes Barbudo was a political activist who was the first Puerto Rican female "Independentista", meaning that she was the first Puerto Rican woman to become an avid advocate of Puerto Rican Independence or "Freedom Fighter"...

, a political activist who was the first female from Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

"Independentista" meaning that she was the first Puerto Rican woman to become an avid advocate of Puerto Rican Independence, and who joined forces with the Venezuelan government, under the leadership of Simon Bolivar, to lead an insurrection against the Spanish colonial forces in Puerto Rico.

The Spanish occupation forces were the object of more than thirty conspiracies. Some, like the Lares uprising, the riots and sedition of 1897 and the Secret Societies at the end of the 19th century, became popular rebellions. The most popular revolts, however, were the one in Lares

Lares, Puerto Rico

Lares is a small mountain municipality of Puerto Rico's central-western area located north of Maricao and Yauco; south of Camuy, east of San Sebastián and Las Marias; and west of Hatillo, Utuado and Adjuntas. Lares is spread over 10 wards and Lares Pueblo...

in 1868, and the one in Yauco in 1897.

In 1868, the Grito de Lares

Grito de Lares

El Grito de Lares —also referred as the Lares uprising, the Lares revolt, Lares rebellion or even Lares Revolution—was the first major revolt against Spanish rule and call for independence in Puerto Rico...

took place, in which revolutionaries took over the town of Lares

Lares, Puerto Rico

and declared the Republic of Puerto Rico. Ramón Emeterio Betances

Ramón Emeterio Betances

Ramón Emeterio Betances y Alacán was a Puerto Rican nationalist. He was the primary instigator of the Grito de Lares revolution, and as such, is considered to be the father of the Puerto Rican independence movement...

was the leader of this revolt. Earlier, Segundo Ruiz Belvis

Segundo Ruiz Belvis

Segundo Ruiz Belvis , was a dedicated abolitionist who also fought for Puerto Rico's right to independence.-Early years:...

and Betances had founded the "Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico" (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) from their exile in the Dominican Republic. Betances authored several "Proclamas" or statements attacking the exploitation of the Puerto Ricans by the Spanish colonial system and called for immediate insurrection. These statements soon circulated throughout the island as local dissident groups began to organize.

Most dissidents were "criollos" (born on the island). The critical state of the economy, along with the increasing repression imposed by the Spanish, served as catalysts for the rebellion. The stronghold of the movement were towns located on the mountains of the west of the island. The rebels looted local stores and offices owned by "peninsulares" (Spanish-born men) and took over the city hall. Spanish merchants and local government authorities, considered by the rebels to be enemies of the fatherland, were taken as prisoners. The revolutionaries then entered the town's church and placed their revolutionary flag on the High Altar to signify that the revolution had begun. The Republic of Puerto Rico was proclaimed, and Francisco Ramírez Medina

Francisco Ramírez Medina

Francisco Ramírez Medina , was one of the leaders of "El Grito de Lares", the first major revolt against Spanish rule and call for independence in Puerto Rico in 1868...

was proclaimed interim presidency. The revolutionaries offered immediate freedom to any slave who would join them.

Upon moving on to the next town, San Sebastián del Pepino

San Sebastián, Puerto Rico

San Sebastián is a municipality of Puerto Rico located northwest of the island south of Isabela and Quebradillas; north of Las Marías; east of Moca and Añasco; and west of Lares. San Sebastián is spread over twenty-four wards and San Sebastián Pueblo...

, the Grito de Lares revolutionaries encountered heavy resistance from the Spanish militia and retreated to Lares. Upon an order from governor Julián Pavía, the Spanish militia soon rounded up the rebels and quickly brought the insurrection to an end. Some 475 rebels were imprisoned, and a military court imposed the death penalty, for treason and sedition, on all the prisoners. However, in Madrid, Eugenio María de Hostos

Eugenio María de Hostos

Eugenio María de Hostos known as "El Ciudadano de América" , was a Puerto Rican educator, philosopher, intellectual, lawyer, sociologist and independence advocate....

and other prominent Puerto Ricans were successful in interceding and a general amnesty was dictated with all the prisoners being released. Betances, Rojas, Lacroix, Aurelio Méndez, and other, however, were sent into exile lending a permanent end to their revolt.

In 1896, a group of residents of Yauco who believed in full independence of Puerto Rico joined forces and made plans to overthrow the Spanish government in the Island. The group was led by Antonio Mattei Lluberas

Antonio Mattei Lluberas

Antonio Mattei Lluberas , was a businessman and politician who in 1897 planned and led the second and last major uprising against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, known as the Intentona de Yauco.-Early years:...

, a wealthy coffee plantation owner, and Mateo Mercado. Later that year, the local Civil Guard discovered their plans and proceeded to arrest all those involved, however they were soon released and returned to their respective homes.

In 1897, Mattei Lluberas traveled to New York City and visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, which consisted, among others, of the exiled group from the 1868 Grito de Lares revolt. There they made plans for a major coup in Puerto Rico. Lluberas returned to Puerto Rico with a Puerto Rican flag to be used for such coup. However, the Mayor of Yauco Francisco Lluch Barreras heard the rumors of the planned uprising, and soon notified the governor of the island. When Fidel Velez, one of the separatist leaders, found out that the Spanish authorities knew about their plans, he called together for a meeting with Mattei Lluberas and the other leaders, and fearing that they all would soon be arrested, Velez demanded that the insurrection start immediately.

On March 24, 1897, Fidel Velez and his men, which included José "Aguila Blanca" Maldonado Román

José Maldonado Román

José Maldonado Román a.k.a. "Aguila Blanca" was a Puerto Rican revolutionary who fought with the Cuban Liberation Army and whose controversial exploits in Puerto Rico have contributed to making him part of Puerto Rican lore....

, marched towards Yauco planning to attack the barracks of the Spanish Civil Guard there with the aim of gaining control of the arms and ammunition which were stored there, but the plan failed because when they arrived they were ambushed by the Spanish forces who had set up positions and were waiting for them. A firefight ensued upon the arrival of the group and the rebels quickly retreated. On March 26, another group headed by Jose Nicolas Quiñones Torres and Ramon Torres also attempted to fight the Spaniards in a barrio called "Quebradas" of Yauco, however said revolt also failed. Over 150 rebels were arrested, accused of various crimes against the state and sent to prison in the City of Ponce

Ponce, Puerto Rico

Ponce is both a city and a municipality in the southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government.The city of Ponce, the fourth most populated in Puerto Rico, and the most populated outside of the San Juan metropolitan area, is named for Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the...

. Velez fled to St. Thomas

Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands

Saint Thomas is an island in the Caribbean Sea and with the islands of Saint John, Saint Croix, and Water Island a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands , an unincorporated territory of the United States. Located on the island is the territorial capital and port of...

where he lived in exile, while Mattei Lluberas went into exile in New York City and joined a group known as the "Puerto Rican Commission".

These attacks came to be known as the "Intentona de Yauco

Intentona de Yauco

The Intentona de Yauco a.k.a. the "Attempted Coup of Yauco" of 1897, was the second and last major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico, staged by Puerto Rico's pro-independence movement....

" (Attempted Coup of Yauco). The revolt, which was the second and last major attempt against the Spaniards in the island, was the first time the flag of Puerto Rico was used in Puerto Rican soil.

Events under U.S. colonial rule

After Puerto Rico was invaded during the Spanish-American War

Spanish-American War

The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...

in 1898, Manuel Zeno Gandia

Manuel Zeno Gandía

Dr. Manuel Zeno Gandía wrote the novel La Charca , which is considered by many to be the first Puerto Rican novel.-Early years:...

traveled to Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....

where, together with Eugenio María de Hostos

Eugenio María de Hostos

Eugenio María de Hostos known as "El Ciudadano de América" , was a Puerto Rican educator, philosopher, intellectual, lawyer, sociologist and independence advocate....

, he proposed the idea of independence for Puerto Rico. The men were disappointed when their ideas were rejected by the government of the United States and the island was converted into a territory

United States territory

United States territory is any extent of region under the jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, including all waters including all U.S. Naval carriers. The United States has traditionally proclaimed the sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing its...

. Zeno Gandia returned to the island where he continued to be politically active.

A number of leaders, including a well-known intellectual and legislator called José de Diego

José de Diego

José de Diego y Martínez , known as "The Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement", was a statesman, journalist, poet, lawyer, and advocate for Puerto Rico's independence from Spain and from the United States....

, sought disconnection from the United States via political accommodation. On June 5, 1900, President William McKinley

William McKinley

William McKinley, Jr. was the 25th President of the United States . He is best known for winning fiercely fought elections, while supporting the gold standard and high tariffs; he succeeded in forging a Republican coalition that for the most part dominated national politics until the 1930s...

named De Diego, together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón

Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón

Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón was a lawyer, a member of the Puerto Rican House of Representatives, and a lifelong political contrarian. He favored Puerto Rican autonomy when Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony. After the Spanish-American War, when the island was ceded to the United States, he advocated...

, José Celso Barbosa

José Celso Barbosa

Dr. José Celso Barbosa was a medical Physician, sociologist, and political leader of Puerto Rico.Known within Puerto Rico's New Progressive Party as "The father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico movement", Barbosa was also the first Puerto Rican to be awarded an American medical degree.-Early...

, Manuel Camuñas, and Andrés Crosas to an Executive Cabinet under U.S. appointed Governor Charles H. Allen. The Executive Cabinet also included six American members. De Diego resigned from the position in order to pursue the island's right to govern itself. In 1904, he co-founded the "Unionist Party

Unionist Party

-United Kingdom:In the United Kingdom the term "unionist' may indicate support for either;* the 1707 Act of Union between Scotland and England or,* the 1800 Act of Union between Ireland and Great Britain....

" along with Luis Muñoz Rivera

Luis Muñoz Rivera

Luis Muñoz Rivera was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist and politician. He was a major figure in the struggle for political autonomy of Puerto Rico....

, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Antonio R. Barceló

Antonio R. Barceló

Antonio Rafael Barceló y Martinez was a lawyer, businessman and the patriarch of what was to become one of Puerto Rico's most prominent political families...

. De Diego was then elected to the House of Delegates, the only locally elected body of government allowed by the U.S., which De Diego presided from 1904 to 1917. The House of Delegates was subject to the U.S. President's veto power and unsuccessfully voted for the island's right to independence and self-government and petitioned against imposition of U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans. De Diego became known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement".

The newly-created Puerto Rico Union Party, advocated allowing voters to choose among non-colonial options, including annexation, an independent protectorate, and full autonomy. Another new party yet, the Puerto Rico Independence Party emerged, founded by Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón

Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón

in 1912, which promoted Puerto Rico's independence. That same year, Zeno Gandía, Matienzo Cintrón, and Luis Llorens Torres

Luis Lloréns Torres

Luis Llorens Torres , was a Puerto Rican poet, playwright, and politician. He was an advocate for the independence of Puerto Rico.-Early years:...

wrote a manifesto which stated that it was time for Puerto Rico to have its independence. The Independence Party, was the first party in the history of the island to openly support independence from the United States as part of its platform.

In 1919, Puerto Rico had two major organizations that supported independence: the Nationalist Youth and the Independence Association. Also in 1919, José Coll y Cuchí

José Coll y Cuchí

José Coll y Cuchi was a lawyer, writer and the founder of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. He was a member of a prominent Puerto Rican family of politicians, educators and writers See: "Notable family members" section .-Early years:Coll y Cuchi was born in Arecibo, Puerto Rico...

, a member of the Union Party of Puerto Rico, left the party and formed the Nationalist Association of Puerto Rico. In 1922, these three political organizations joined forces and formed the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

Puerto Rican Nationalist Party

The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was founded on September 17, 1922. Its main objective is to work for Puerto Rican Independence.In 1919, José Coll y Cuchí, a member of the Union Party of Puerto Rico, felt that the Union Party was not doing enough for the cause of Puerto Rican independence and he...

with Coll y Cuchi as party president. The party's main goal was to achieve independence from the United States. In 1924 Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos

Pedro Albizu Campos

Don Pedro Albizu Campos was a Puerto Rican politician and one of the leading figures in the Puerto Rican independence movement. He was the leader and president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from 1930 until his death...

joined the party and was named vice-president.

On May 11, 1930, Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party. Under Albizu Campos' leadership, the party became the largest independence movement in Puerto Rican in the 1930s. However, after disappointing electoral outcomes and strong repression by the territorial police, by mid 1930s Albizu opted against electoral participation and advocated violent revolution as the means to achieve independence.

In 1932, the pro-independence Liberal Party of Puerto Rico was founded by Antonio R. Barceló

Antonio R. Barceló

Antonio Rafael Barceló y Martinez was a lawyer, businessman and the patriarch of what was to become one of Puerto Rico's most prominent political families...

. The Liberal Party's political agenda was the same as the original Union Party's agenda and urged independence as a final political solution for Puerto Rico. Among those who joined him in the "new" party were Felisa Rincón de Gautier

Felisa Rincón de Gautier

Felisa Rincón de GautierThis name uses Spanish marriage naming customs; the first is the maiden family name "Rincón" and the second or matrimonial family name is "Gautier"...

and Ernesto Ramos Antonini

Ernesto Ramos Antonini

Ernesto Ramos Antonini was the President of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico and co-founder of the Partido Popular Democrático de Puerto Rico .-Early years:...

. By 1932, Luis Muñoz Rivera's son, Luis Muñoz Marín

Luis Muñoz Marín

Don José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician. Regarded as the "father of modern Puerto Rico," he was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico. Muñoz Marín was the son of Luis Muñoz Rivera, a renowned autonomist leader...

had joined the Liberal Party. During the elections of 32' the Liberal Party faced the Alliance which was now a coalition of the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and Santiago Iglesias Pantin's Socialist Party. Barceló and Muñoz Marín were both elected Senators. By 1936, differences between Muñoz Marín and Barceló began to surface between those who considered Muñoz Marín the true leader and those who considered Barceló as their leader. After the assassination of police colonel Francis Riggs in San Juan as an indirect result of the Rio Piedras massacre

Río Piedras massacre

The Río Piedras massacre occurred at the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras, Puerto Rico, and involved a confrontation between local police officers and supporters of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party on October 24, 1935...

, which involved the police and students of the University of Puerto Rico

University of Puerto Rico

The University of Puerto Rico is the state university system of Puerto Rico. The system consists of 11 campuses and has approximately 64,511 students and 5,300 faculty members...

, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings

Millard Tydings

Millard Evelyn Tydings was an attorney, author, soldier, state legislator, and served as a Democratic Representative and Senator in the United States Congress from Maryland.-Early life:...

presented a legislation proposal to grant independence to Puerto Rico with unfavorable economic conditions which in the long run would leave the island in ruins. Barceló and the Liberal Party favored the Bill, because it would give Puerto Rico it's independence, Muñoz Marín opposed the Bill because he wanted Puerto Rico's immediate independence with favorable conditions. Muñoz Marín and his followers, among which were included Felisa Rincón de Gautier and Ernesto Ramos Antonini, held an assembly in the town of Arecibo founded the Partido Liberal, Neto, Auténtico y Completo ("Clear, Authentic and Complete Liberal Party").

Nationalist Party partisans were involved in a variety of dramatic and violent confrontations during the 1930 and 1940s:

On April 6, 1932, Nationalist partisans marched into the Capitol building
Capitol of Puerto Rico
The Capitol of Puerto Rico is located on the Islet of San Juan just outside the walls of Old San Juan. The building is home to the bicameral Legislative Assembly, composed of the House of Representatives and Senate...

in San Juan
San Juan, Puerto Rico
San Juan , officially Municipio de la Ciudad Capital San Juan Bautista , is the capital and most populous municipality in Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 395,326 making it the 46th-largest city under the jurisdiction of...

to protest the legislative proposal to establish the present Puerto Rican flag, the official flag of the insular government. Nationalists preferred the emblem used during the Grito de Lares
Grito de Lares
El Grito de Lares —also referred as the Lares uprising, the Lares revolt, Lares rebellion or even Lares Revolution—was the first major revolt against Spanish rule and call for independence in Puerto Rico...

.
On October 24, 1935, a confrontation with police at University of Puerto Rico
University of Puerto Rico
The University of Puerto Rico is the state university system of Puerto Rico. The system consists of 11 campuses and has approximately 64,511 students and 5,300 faculty members...

, Río Piedras campus, killed four Puerto Rican Nationalist Party supporters and one policeman. The event came to be known as the Río Piedras massacre
Río Piedras massacre
The Río Piedras massacre occurred at the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras, Puerto Rico, and involved a confrontation between local police officers and supporters of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party on October 24, 1935...

.
On February 23, 1936, Colonel Elisha Francis Riggs, a former Colonel in the United States Army and who was at the time the U.S. appointed superior police officer in the island, was considered by the nationalists to be responsible for the massacre, was assassinated in retaliation by Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elías Beauchamp, after he attend mass in San Juan's Cathedral and while he was on his way home. Rosado and Beauchamp were arrested, and summarily executed without a trial at the police headquarters in San Juan, but not before Beauchamp posed solemnly for a news photographer outside and proffered a stiff military salute.
On March 21, 1937, a peaceful march in Ponce
Ponce, Puerto Rico
Ponce is both a city and a municipality in the southern part of Puerto Rico. The city is the seat of the municipal government.The city of Ponce, the fourth most populated in Puerto Rico, and the most populated outside of the San Juan metropolitan area, is named for Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, the...

by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party organized to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico resulted in the deaths of 17 unarmed citizens and 2 policemen at the hands of the territorial police, an event known as the Ponce Massacre
Ponce massacre
The Ponce massacre occurred on 21 March 1937 when a peaceful march in Ponce, Puerto Rico, by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party commemorating the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico by the governing Spanish National Assembly in 1873, and coinciding with a protest against the incarceration by the...

.
On July 25, 1938, shots were fired during a military parade and speech by the US colonial governor on the Island Blanton Winship, slaying Police Colonel Luis Irizarry. Soon afterward, two Nationalist partisans attempted to assassinate Robert Cooper
Robert Cooper
Robert Cooper is the name of:*Robert Archer Cooper, former governor of South Carolina*Robert C. Cooper, Canadian writer and producer who is the executive producer of Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis...

, judge of the Federal Court in Puerto Rico.
On June 11, 1948, the United States-appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero
Jesus T. Piñero
Jesús Toribio Piñero Jiménez was the first native Puerto Rican to be appointed governor of Puerto Rico by the Government of the United States.-Early years:...

, signed into law a bill that made it illegal to talk of independence or to fight for the liberation of the island, and significantly curtailed other Puerto Rican independence activities. The infamous "Ley de la Mordaza" (Gag Law) or Law 53 as it was officially known, even made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican Flag
Flag of Puerto Rico
The flags of Puerto Rico represent and symbolize the island and people of Puerto Rico. The most commonly used flags of Puerto Rico are the current flag, which represents the people of the commonwealth of Puerto Rico; municipal flags, which represent the different regions of the island; political...

, sing a patriotic song and to talk of independence for the island.

Events under Commonwealth status

The new Commonwealth status forced a new set of initiatives from the Puerto Rican independence movement. On October 30, 1950, with the new autonomist Commonwealth status about to go into effect, multiple Nationalist uprisings occurred. There were about a dozen skirmishes throughout the Puerto Rico, including Peñuelas, the Jayuya Uprising

Jayuya Uprising

The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt or El Grito de Jayuya, refers to a nationalist revolt in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico which occurred on October 30, 1950...

, the Utuado Uprising

Utuado Uprising

The Utuado Uprising, also known as the Utuado Revolt or El Grito de Utuado, refers to the revolt against the United States government in Puerto Rico which occurred on October 30, 1950 in various localities in Puerto Rico and which in Utuado culminated in the "Utuado massacre".-Events leading to the...

, the attack in San Juan

Nationalist attack of San Juan

The Nationalist attack of San Juan was one of many uprisings against United States Government rule which occurred in Puerto Rico on October 30, 1950 during the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts...

, and other shootouts in Mayagüez

Mayagüez, Puerto Rico

Mayagüez is the eighth-largest municipality of Puerto Rico. Originally founded as "Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria" it is also known as "La Sultana del Oeste" , "Ciudad de las Aguas Puras" , or "Ciudad del Mangó"...

, Naranjito

Naranjito, Puerto Rico

Naranjito is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the central region of the island, south of Toa Alta; north of Barranquitas and Comerío; east of Corozal; and west of Bayamón. Naranjito is spread over 15 wards and Naranjito Pueblo...

, and Arecibo

Arecibo, Puerto Rico

Arecibo is a municipality in the northern midwest coast of Puerto Rico and located by the Atlantic Ocean, north of Utuado and Ciales; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta, and Florida. Arecibo is spread over 18 wards and Arecibo Pueblo...

. During the 1950 Jayuya Uprising

Jayuya Uprising

The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt or El Grito de Jayuya, refers to a nationalist revolt in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico which occurred on October 30, 1950...

, Blanca Canales

Blanca Canales

Blanca Canales Torresola was a Puerto Rican nationalist leader. Canales may possibly have been the first woman to have led a revolt against the United States when she led the The Jayuya Uprising.-Early years:...

declared Puerto Rico a free republic. Two days after the creation of the Commonwealth, an assassination attempt

Truman assassination attempt

The assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S. Truman occurred on November 1, 1950. It was perpetrated by two Puerto Rican pro-independence activists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, while the President resided at the Blair House. The attempt resulted in the deaths of White House Police...

was made against President Harry S. Truman.

In 1952, Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

was allowed to have a constitution

Constitution

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...

under the U.S. Territorial Clause. However, it was subject to U.S. laws and to approval by the U.S. Executive and Legislative branches of government, branches which Puerto Ricans did not participate in electing or creating. The government suppressed the Nationalist leaders and their activities and the influence of the Nationalist Party waned. Members of the Nationalist Party opened fire onto the floor of the US. Congress in 1954.

By the 1960s, the United States was coming under increased criticism internationally for holding onto one of the world's last colonies. By the 1960s, a new phase of Puerto Rican resistance began. After the decimation of the Nationalist Party, several organizations began to use "clandestine armed struggle" against the U.S. government. Underground "peoples armies" such as El Movimiento Independentista Revolucionario en Armas (MIRA), Los Comandos Armado de Liberacion (CAL), Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional

Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (Puerto Rico)

The Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional was a Puerto Rican clandestine paramilitary organization that, through direct action, advocated complete independence for Puerto Rico. At the time of its dissolution, the FALN was responsible for more than 120 bomb attacks on United States targets between...

(FALN), la Organización de Voluntarios por la Revolución Puertorriqueña (OVRP), The Ejército Popular Boricua (EPB), and others began engaging in subversive activities against the U.S. government and military to bring attention to the colonial condition of Puerto Rico.

Current approaches

A majority of independentistas today seek to achieve independence through either the electoral or the diplomatic process. In 1946, Gilberto Concepción de Gracia

Gilberto Concepción de Gracia

Dr. Gilberto Concepción de Gracia was a lawyer, journalist, author, politician and founder of the Puerto Rican Independence Party.-Early years:Concepción de Gracia was born in the town of Vega Alta, Puerto Rico...

founded the Puerto Rican Independence Party

Puerto Rican Independence Party

The Puerto Rican Independence Party is a Puerto Rican political party that campaigns for the independence of Puerto Rico from United States suzerainty....

, the most influential organization participating in the electoral process. The party has elected some legislative candidates, but has yet to win more than a few percentage points of the vote in gubernatorial elections (2.04% in 2008) or the legislative elections (4.5-5% of the island-wide legislative vote in 2008).

External links

Portraits of Notable Individuals in the Struggle for Puerto Rican Independence

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Revolts by the Tainos

Revolts by criollos

Events under U.S. colonial rule

Events under Commonwealth status

Current approaches

See also

Further reading

External links