Raptor conservation concerns are threats affecting the population viability of birds of prey

Bird of prey

Birds of prey are birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing, using their keen senses, especially vision. They are defined as birds that primarily hunt vertebrates, including other birds. Their talons and beaks tend to be relatively large, powerful and adapted for tearing and/or piercing flesh....

. Because of their hunting lifestyle, raptors face distinct conservation

Conservation biology

Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction...

 challenges. As top predators, they are important for healthy ecosystem

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....

 functioning, and by protecting them many other species are safeguarded. Their extensive habitat requirements make regional conservation strategies necessary for protecting birds of prey.

Pesticides

Because they are opportunistic carnivores, birds of prey are at high risk of secondary poisoning by eating organisms that have been killed or debilitated by pesticide

Pesticide

Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...

s. Raptors may be poisoned by legal, labeled use of pesticides or by illegal use. Cases can be identified as abuse if the chemical responsible is prohibited by law or not in use in the affected area. For example, in North America

North America

North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...

, Golden eagle

Golden Eagle

The Golden Eagle is one of the best known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. Once widespread across the Holarctic, it has disappeared from many of the more heavily populated areas...

 poisonings are commonly found to be pesticide abuse cases traced to tainted sheep carcasses used to bait and kill coyote

Coyote

The coyote , also known as the American jackal or the prairie wolf, is a species of canine found throughout North and Central America, ranging from Panama in the south, north through Mexico, the United States and Canada...

s. Common instances of labeled use are consumption of insects or worms that have been sprayed, and ingesting pesticide granules or treated seeds as food. In 1995 three thousand Swainson's hawk

Swainson's Hawk

The Swainson's Hawk , is a large buteo hawk of the Falconiformes, sometimes separated in the Accipitriformes like its relatives. This species was named after William Swainson, a British naturalist...

s were killed in Argentina

Argentina

Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...

 after they ate insects that had been sprayed.

While most developed nations

Developed country

A developed country is a country that has a high level of development according to some criteria. Which criteria, and which countries are classified as being developed, is a contentious issue...

 have adopted standards that reduce usage of chemicals with extended environmental persistence

Persistent organic pollutant

thumb|right|275px|State parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsPersistent organic pollutants are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes...

, the pesticides are still powerful and dangerous immediately after application. The United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

 owes its small proportion of labeled-use deaths to less toxic pesticides, whereas the United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

 has near equal amounts of labeled-use to illegal use fatalities. Use of non-granular and untreated seeds would reduce pesticide concentration and accessibility as a food source.

Lead shot

Birds of prey may eat dead or injured prey killed with lead shot

Lead shot

Lead shot is a collective term for small balls of lead. These were the original projectiles for muskets and early rifles, but today lead shot is fired primarily from shotguns. It is also used for a variety of other purposes...

 or fishing sinkers. Most lead poisoning

Lead poisoning

Lead poisoning is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body. Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems...

s result from consumption of unretrieved game birds

Game (food)

Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated. Game animals are also hunted for sport.The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world. This will be influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted view about what can or...

, in addition to downed pests and other game animals. The effects of lead poisoning can include ballooning of the proventriculus

Proventriculus

The proventriculus is part of the digestive system of birds, invertebrates and insects.-Birds:The proventriculus is a standard part of avian anatomy...

, weight loss, anemia

Anemia

Anemia is a decrease in number of red blood cells or less than the normal quantity of hemoglobin in the blood. However, it can include decreased oxygen-binding ability of each hemoglobin molecule due to deformity or lack in numerical development as in some other types of hemoglobin...

, and a drooping posture. Overall lead poisoning increases a bird's risk of predation and the occurrence of starvation and disease, which reduces fitness

Fitness (biology)

Fitness is a central idea in evolutionary theory. It can be defined either with respect to a genotype or to a phenotype in a given environment...

 and reproductive success

Reproductive success

Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass those genes on. In practice, this is often a tally of the number of offspring produced by an individual. A more correct definition, which incorporates inclusive fitness, is the...

.

Lead is a persistent environmental contaminant, and as suitable habitat patches diminish, both the concentration of organisms and hunting space increases. Restricting use of lead, especially in wetlands, and switching to non-toxic shot can reduce lead contamination.

Utility poles

There are over 185 million power line

Power Line

Power Line is an American political blog, providing news and commentary from a conservative point-of-view. It was originally written by three lawyers who attended Dartmouth College together: John H. Hinderaker, Scott W. Johnson, and Paul Mirengoff...

 poles in the United States, each posing some risk of electrocution

Electrocution

Electrocution is a type of electric shock that, as determined by a stopped heart, can end life. Electrocution is frequently used to refer to any electric shock received but is technically incorrect; the choice of definition varies from dictionary to dictionary...

. The larger a bird is, the easier it is to span the distance between conductive components of pole tops and be electrocuted. Females have been found affected at a higher incidence, as they are generally larger than males. Species living in areas devoid of natural perches are also vulnerable to electrocution as they use poles to hunt from. Poles at high elevations affording a wide field of view are at increased risk. Placement of poles in prime habitat

Habitat

* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...

 or along migration

Bird migration

Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...

 routes has caused higher mortality, and rates increase late in the summer during fledging

Fledge

Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it to a fully grown state...

 when young, inexperienced birds proliferate. Bathing behavior at times of rain or snow makes birds more conductive

Electrical conductor

In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is a material which contains movable electric charges. In metallic conductors such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged particles are electrons...

 to electricity, and orientation of pole cross arms with regard to prevailing winds can increase risk of contact with electrical components depending on ease of take off and landing.

Over half of North American and a majority of Europe

Europe

Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...

an raptor species have been affected by electrocution. European utility equipment is made of steel

Steel

Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten...

, increasing conductivity of the whole structure. While electrocution doesn’t threaten the viability of most raptor populations, the whole of human impacts can, so it is sensible to reduce known causes of mortality in any way possible. Burying cables, installing perch deterrents, and attentive placement of poles are ways to reduce risk of death by electrocution.

Wind turbines

Because they hunt on the wing and have wind-specific flight behaviors

Bird flight

Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the world's bird species. Flight assists birds while feeding, breeding and avoiding predators....

, raptors are at risk of death from collisions with wind turbine

Wind turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind generator or wind charger. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or...

s. Red-tailed hawks at the controversial Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area

Altamont Pass Wind Farm

The Altamont Pass Wind Farm is located in the Altamont Pass of the Diablo Range in Central California. It is one of the earliest wind farms in the United States. The wind farm is composed of 4930 relatively small wind turbines of various types, making it at one time the largest farm in the world in...

 are especially susceptible. The hawks usually hunt from perches but during high winds they hunt while soaring

Lift (soaring)

Gliding flight is heavier-than-air flight without the use of thrust. It is employed by gliding animals and by aircraft such as gliders. The most common human application of gliding flight is in sport and recreation using aircraft designed for this purpose...

 or kiting in place. Soaring on thermal

Thermal

A thermal column is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere. Thermals are created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface from solar radiation, and are an example of convection. The sun warms the ground, which in turn warms the air directly above it...

s brings them to the same elevation as turbine blades, while at higher winds kiting on slope updrafts can keep birds hovering in place next to a turbine in gusty winds.

Raptors and turbines converge in windy areas, and a balance must be found between wildlife conservation

Conservation biology

Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction...

 and clean energy. Planning wind farm

Wind farm

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other...

s away from prime habitat, turning off turbines at peak raptor presence and dismantling specific high-risk turbines can prevent raptor deaths.