Rebellion of the Seven States
Encyclopedia
The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms took place in 154 BC
against China's
Han Dynasty
to resist the emperor's attempt to centralise the government further.
, Liu Bang created princely titles for many of his relatives in certain territories that accounted for between approximately one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the jùnxiàn (郡县/郡縣) commandery system.
During the reign of Emperor Wen
, these princes were still setting their own laws, but in addition they were minting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing
became emperor in 157 BC
, the rich Principality of Wu was especially domineering.
(刘濞/劉濞), the prince of the wealthy Principality of Wu (modern southern Jiangsu
, northern Zhejiang
, southern Anhui
, and northern Jiangxi
), which enjoyed, among other natural resources, abundant copper and salt supplies. While Emperor Jing was crown prince, Liu Pi's heir apparent Lu Xian (刘贤/劉賢) had been on an official visit to the capital Chang'an
, and they competed in a liubo
board game. During arguments over the game, Liu Xian offended then-Crown Prince Qi, and Prince Qi threw the liubo board at Liu Xian, resulting in his death. Liu Pi thus had great hatred for the new emperor.
Emperor Jing's key advisor Chao Cuo
suggested, using as excuses offences that the princes had committed which had generally been ignored by Emperor Wen, that he cut down the sizes of the principalities to make them less threatening. Chao explicitly contemplated the possibility that Wu and other principalities might rebel, but justified the action by asserting that if they were going to rebel, it would be better to let them rebel earlier than later when they might be more prepared.
Under this theory, Emperor Jing, in 154 BC
, ordered the following punishments for the princes:-
Two other principalities agreed to join - Qi (modern central Shandong
) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong
) - but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), the Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebel forces. Liu Zhi (劉志), the Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion. Three other princes were persuaded to join but either refused or merely did not join: Liu An (劉安), the Prince of Huainan (roughly modern Lu'an
, Anhui
); Liu Ci (劉賜), the Prince of Lujiang (roughly modern Chaohu, Anhui
); and Liu Bo (劉勃), the Prince of Hengshan (roughly part of modern Lu'an
, Anhui
). The princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang
) and Minyue (modern Fujian
), and the powerful northern Xiongnu
. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so as well, did not.
The seven princes, as part of their political propaganda, claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities, and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.
Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu, had several strategies suggested to him that he considered:-
Liu Pi accepted the final suggestion, concerned that if he gave Tian a large force he might rebel, and that Huan's plan was too dangerous. Wu and Chu forces therefore concentrated against Liang, against Emperor Jing's younger brother Liu Wu (劉武), the Prince of Liang, whose forces initially suffered devastating defeats, forcing Liu Wu to withdraw to his capital of Suiyang (睢陽, in modern Shangqiu
, Henan
), which the Wu and Chu forces then proceeded to besiege.
(周亞夫) as the commander of his armed forces to face the main rebel force - the joint forces of Wu and Chu. He commissioned Li Ji
(酈寄), the Marquess of Quzhou, to attack Zhao, and General Luan Bu (欒布) to try to relieve the siege of Qi. Dou Ying (竇嬰) was put in command of Li and Luan's forces, to coordinate them at his headquarters set at Yingyang (滎陽, in modern Zhengzhou
, Henan
).
However, Emperor Jing soon panicked at the prospect of losing, and at the suggestion of Chao Cuo's enemy Yuan Ang
(袁盎), he executed Chao to try to appease the seven princes. Chao's immediate family was also executed. (Chao's father, who had seen the likelihood of this happening, had committed suicide a few months earlier.) Emperor Jing sent Yuan and Liu Pi's nephew Liu Tong (劉通), the minister for imperial clan affairs, to try to persuade Liu Pi to end the rebellion. Liu Pi, whose claim that he was only seeking Chao's execution was mere propaganda, did not call off the rebellion but instead imprisoned Liu Tong and Yuan. (He told Liu Tong and Yuan that his actual aim was to be the "Eastern Emperor.") Yuan was, however, able to escape soon after.
After taking command of his forces, Zhou headed toward Changyi (昌邑, in modern Jining
, Shandong
) to prepare to cut off the Wu and Chu supply routes. At this time Liang appeared to be in great danger, and Prince Liu Wu sent messenger after messenger to seek immediate assistance from Zhou, which Zhou ignored. Emperor Jing, concerned for his brother, ordered Zhou to head to Liang immediately to save it. Zhou refused, and instead sent a cavalry force to cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly due to the strong defence put up by Prince Wu's generals Han Anguo (韓安國) and Zhang Yu (張羽), headed northeast to attack Zhou. Zhou refused to engage in a direct battle with Wu and Chu forces, but rather concentrated on defending his camp. After being unable to get a decisive victory over Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces began to suffer from starvation and collapsed. Liu Pi fled to Donghai; Donghai killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the Prince of Chu, committed suicide.
, Jiangsu
) and, under the guise of being an imperial messenger, had the county magistrate killed and took over the county's militia. He then persuaded the people of the county to join the rebellion, and they headed north and had victories over the forces of the Principality of Chengyang (modern southeastern Shandong
). However, after hearing that Liu Pi had been defeated, Zhou was so taken by anxiety that he died.
Meanwhile, four principalities were besieging the Qi capital Linzi (臨淄, in modern Zibo
, Shandong
). Liu Jianglü, the Prince of Qi, considered surrendering, but his resolve to resist was strengthened when his messenger Lu (路), who had been captured by the four princes, told him from under the walls of the capital to resist (even though he was under threat from the four princes to persuade Prince Jianglü to surrender). Eventually, Luan Bu and Cao Qi (曹奇), the Marquess of Pingyang, arrived and defeated the four principalities, but at the same time also discovered that Qi had initially been part of the conspiracy. Unable to explain himself, Prince Jianglü committed suicide, but Emperor Jing, having compassion on him, permitted his son Liu Shou (劉壽) to inherit the principality.
Not so fortunate were the princes of the four rebelling principalities. Han Tuidang (韓頹當), the Marquess of Gonggao, wrote a letter to Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, threatening him with utter destruction if he did not surrender. Prince Ang did so and was allowed to commit suicide. The other three princes were captured and executed. The four principalities were seized by the central government.
The final principality to be destroyed was Zhao. While Li Ji was initially unable to prevail in besieging the Zhao capital of Handan (modern Handan
, Hebei
), Zhao's hopes were virtually lost when Xiongnu forces, realizing Zhao was about to be defeated, chose not to join in the battle. When Luan returned from Qi he attacked Handan with Li and was able to capture it by breaking a levee to flood the walls of Handan. Liu Sui, the Prince of Zhao, committed suicide.
Liu Zhi, the Prince of Jibei, who initially wished to join the rebellion, did not share their fate. His official Gongsun Huo (公孫獲) was able to persuade Liu Wu, the Prince of Liang, that Liu Zhi had only pretended to join the rebellion and had in fact contributed to the rebellion's defeat. With Liu Wu's intercession, Prince Zhi was spared and he was instead given the Principality of Zaichuan.
In all, the initially ferocious rebellion lasted only three months before being defeated.
. With the longevity of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese mindset of it being normal to have a unified empire rather than divided states started to settle in.
154 BC
Year 154 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Opimius and Albinus/Glabrio...
against China's
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
to resist the emperor's attempt to centralise the government further.
Prelude to the rebellion
At the beginning of the Han DynastyHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, Liu Bang created princely titles for many of his relatives in certain territories that accounted for between approximately one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the jùnxiàn (郡县/郡縣) commandery system.
During the reign of Emperor Wen
Emperor Wen of Han
Emperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
, these princes were still setting their own laws, but in addition they were minting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing
Emperor Jing of Han
Emperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
became emperor in 157 BC
157 BC
Year 157 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Orestes...
, the rich Principality of Wu was especially domineering.
Events immediately prior to the rebellion
Emperor Jing already had an inimical relationship with his cousin-once-removed (the nephew of his grandfather Emperor Gao) Liu PiLiu Pi (prince)
Liu Pi was a nephew of Emperor Gao of Han, son of Liu Xi, Prince of Dai, and created as Prince of Wu by Emperor Gao. During Emperor Jing of Han reign, he initiated the Rebellion of the Seven States to resist centralizing policies, in which he was defeated and killed.-Biography:In 196 BC, he was...
(刘濞/劉濞), the prince of the wealthy Principality of Wu (modern southern Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
, northern Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
, southern Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
, and northern Jiangxi
Jiangxi
' is a southern province in the People's Republic of China. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze River in the north into hillier areas in the south, it shares a border with Anhui to the north, Zhejiang to the northeast, Fujian to the east, Guangdong to the south, Hunan to the west, and Hubei to...
), which enjoyed, among other natural resources, abundant copper and salt supplies. While Emperor Jing was crown prince, Liu Pi's heir apparent Lu Xian (刘贤/劉賢) had been on an official visit to the capital Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
, and they competed in a liubo
Liubo
Liubo is an ancient Chinese board game played by two players. For the rules, it is believed that each player had six game pieces that were moved around the points of a square game board that had a distinctive, symmetrical pattern...
board game. During arguments over the game, Liu Xian offended then-Crown Prince Qi, and Prince Qi threw the liubo board at Liu Xian, resulting in his death. Liu Pi thus had great hatred for the new emperor.
Emperor Jing's key advisor Chao Cuo
Chao Cuo
Cháo Cuò was a Chinese political advisor and official of the Han Dynasty , renowned for his intellectual capabilities and foresight in martial and political matters. Although not against the philosophy of Confucius , he was described by later Eastern Han scholars as a Legalist...
suggested, using as excuses offences that the princes had committed which had generally been ignored by Emperor Wen, that he cut down the sizes of the principalities to make them less threatening. Chao explicitly contemplated the possibility that Wu and other principalities might rebel, but justified the action by asserting that if they were going to rebel, it would be better to let them rebel earlier than later when they might be more prepared.
Under this theory, Emperor Jing, in 154 BC
154 BC
Year 154 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Opimius and Albinus/Glabrio...
, ordered the following punishments for the princes:-
- Carving out the commandery of Donghai from the Principality of Chu (modern northern JiangsuJiangsu' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
and northern AnhuiAnhuiAnhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
), based on Liu WuLiu Wu (prince)Liu Wu was the son of Liu Yingke, Prince Yi of Chu. After the short reign of his father, he inherited the title Prince of Chu in 174 BC. In 155 BC, Empress Dowager Bo died, and Liu Wu was caught drinking during the grieving period, which Emperor Jing of Han reduced the size of his land...
, the Prince of Chu, having sexual relations during the mourning period for Grand Empress Dowager BoEmpress Dowager BoEmpress Dowager Bo , known as Consort Bo when her husband was alive, and more formally as either Empress Dowager Xiaowen or Empress Gao was an imperial concubine for Emperor Gao of Han who would, unanticipated by her, become the mother of an emperor.-Early years:The future Empress Dowager...
. - Carving out the commandery of Changshan from the Principality of Zhao (modern central and southern HebeiHebei' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
), based on an unspecified offence. - Carving out six counties from the Principality of Jiaoxi (roughly modern WeifangWeifangWeifang is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Dongying to the northwest, Zibo to the west, Linyi to the southwest, Rizhao to the south, Qingdao to the east, and looks out to the Laizhou Bay to the north.-History:Weifang is a historical city...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
), based on Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, embezzling funds from the sales of titles intended for paying border patrol costs. - Carving out the commanderies of Huiji and Yuzhang from the Principality of Wu, based on various offences by Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu.
The start of the rebellion
Liu Pi therefore started a rebellion. The princes participating were:-- Liu PiLiu Pi (prince)Liu Pi was a nephew of Emperor Gao of Han, son of Liu Xi, Prince of Dai, and created as Prince of Wu by Emperor Gao. During Emperor Jing of Han reign, he initiated the Rebellion of the Seven States to resist centralizing policies, in which he was defeated and killed.-Biography:In 196 BC, he was...
, the Prince of Wu. - Liu WuLiu Wu (prince)Liu Wu was the son of Liu Yingke, Prince Yi of Chu. After the short reign of his father, he inherited the title Prince of Chu in 174 BC. In 155 BC, Empress Dowager Bo died, and Liu Wu was caught drinking during the grieving period, which Emperor Jing of Han reduced the size of his land...
, the Prince of Chu. - Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi.
- Liu SuiLiu SuiLiu Sui is the son of Liu You. When Emperor Wen of Han ascended to the throne in 180 BC, Sui was created as Prince of Zhao after Lü Lu along with others at the end of Lü Clan Disturbance...
, the Prince of Zhao. - Liu Xiongqu (劉雄渠), the Prince of Jiaodong (roughly modern QingdaoQingdao' also known in the West by its postal map spelling Tsingtao, is a major city with a population of over 8.715 million in eastern Shandong province, Eastern China. Its built up area, made of 7 urban districts plus Jimo city, is home to about 4,346,000 inhabitants in 2010.It borders Yantai to the...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
). - Liu Xian (劉賢), the Prince of Zaichuan (roughly part of modern WeifangWeifangWeifang is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Dongying to the northwest, Zibo to the west, Linyi to the southwest, Rizhao to the south, Qingdao to the east, and looks out to the Laizhou Bay to the north.-History:Weifang is a historical city...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
). - Liu Piguang (劉辟光), the Prince of Jinan (roughly modern JinanJinanJinan is the capital of Shandong province in Eastern China. The area of present-day Jinan has played an important role in the history of the region from the earliest beginnings of civilisation and has evolved into a major national administrative, economic, and transportation hub...
, ShandongShandong' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
).
Two other principalities agreed to join - Qi (modern central Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) - but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), the Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebel forces. Liu Zhi (劉志), the Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion. Three other princes were persuaded to join but either refused or merely did not join: Liu An (劉安), the Prince of Huainan (roughly modern Lu'an
Lu'an
Lu'an , is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, with a population of 5,612,590 inhabitants at 2010 census. Its built up area is home to 1,482,729 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
); Liu Ci (劉賜), the Prince of Lujiang (roughly modern Chaohu, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
); and Liu Bo (劉勃), the Prince of Hengshan (roughly part of modern Lu'an
Lu'an
Lu'an , is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, with a population of 5,612,590 inhabitants at 2010 census. Its built up area is home to 1,482,729 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts...
, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
). The princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
) and Minyue (modern Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
), and the powerful northern Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so as well, did not.
The seven princes, as part of their political propaganda, claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities, and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.
Rebel campaigns and strategies
The four principalities on the periphery of Qi aimed to conquer Qi and divide it. Zhao forces headed west but stayed within the borders to wait for Wu and Chu forces, which were considered the main force in the rebellion.Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu, had several strategies suggested to him that he considered:-
- A suggestion by Tian Lubo (田祿伯) to have two main forces - one to be led by Liu Pi himself, attacking the Principality of Liang (modern eastern HenanHenanHenan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
), and one to be led by Tian that would head west by the Yangtze RiverYangtze RiverThe Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
and the Han RiverHan River (Hanshui)The Han River is a left tributary of the Yangtze River with a length of 1532 km. Historically it was referred to as Hànshuǐ and the name is still occasionally used today....
to make a surprise attack directly on the capital Chang'anChang'anChang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
. - A suggestion by a General Huan (桓) to ignore all cities on the way and leapfrog to attack LuoyangLuoyangLuoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
and seize the plentiful food and weapons supply near Luoyang. - A suggestion (probably by Liu Pi's heir apparent Liu Ju (劉駒)) to concentrate the forces to attack Liang and destroy it first.
Liu Pi accepted the final suggestion, concerned that if he gave Tian a large force he might rebel, and that Huan's plan was too dangerous. Wu and Chu forces therefore concentrated against Liang, against Emperor Jing's younger brother Liu Wu (劉武), the Prince of Liang, whose forces initially suffered devastating defeats, forcing Liu Wu to withdraw to his capital of Suiyang (睢陽, in modern Shangqiu
Shangqiu
Shangqiu is a city in eastern Henan province, Central China. It borders Kaifeng to the northwest, Zhoukou to the southwest, and the provinces of Shandong and Anhui to the northeast and southeast respectively. An ancient city with a rich history, Shangqiu was also the first capital of the Shang...
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
), which the Wu and Chu forces then proceeded to besiege.
Emperor Jing's responses
In accordance with instructions left by Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing commissioned Zhou YafuZhou Yafu
Zhou Yafu was a renowned Han Dynasty general who put down the Rebellion of the Seven States, but whose honesty and integrity eventually cost him the favor of Emperor Jing and his life...
(周亞夫) as the commander of his armed forces to face the main rebel force - the joint forces of Wu and Chu. He commissioned Li Ji
Li Ji
Li Ji may refer to:*Classic of Rites, classical book of Confucianism*Li Shiji, also named Li Ji, Chinese general of Tang Dynasty*Li Ji , Chinese swimmer*Li Ji , Chinese athlete*Li Ji , concubine of Duke Xian of Jin...
(酈寄), the Marquess of Quzhou, to attack Zhao, and General Luan Bu (欒布) to try to relieve the siege of Qi. Dou Ying (竇嬰) was put in command of Li and Luan's forces, to coordinate them at his headquarters set at Yingyang (滎陽, in modern Zhengzhou
Zhengzhou
Zhengzhou , is the capital and largest city of Henan province in north-central China. A prefecture-level city, it also serves as the political, economic, technological, and educational centre of the province, as well as a major transportation hub for Central China...
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
).
However, Emperor Jing soon panicked at the prospect of losing, and at the suggestion of Chao Cuo's enemy Yuan Ang
Yuan Ang
Yuan Ang was a Han Dynasty minister who served Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing. His biography appears in the Shi Ji, and a parallel one is in Han Shu...
(袁盎), he executed Chao to try to appease the seven princes. Chao's immediate family was also executed. (Chao's father, who had seen the likelihood of this happening, had committed suicide a few months earlier.) Emperor Jing sent Yuan and Liu Pi's nephew Liu Tong (劉通), the minister for imperial clan affairs, to try to persuade Liu Pi to end the rebellion. Liu Pi, whose claim that he was only seeking Chao's execution was mere propaganda, did not call off the rebellion but instead imprisoned Liu Tong and Yuan. (He told Liu Tong and Yuan that his actual aim was to be the "Eastern Emperor.") Yuan was, however, able to escape soon after.
Main campaign
Wu and Chu forces continued to attack Liang's capital Suiyang fiercely. Zhou Yafu suggested to Emperor Jing that the proper strategy was not to engage Wu and Chu forces head on because, in particular, Chu forces were known for their ferocity and excellent mobility. Rather, his plan was to let Liang take the brunt of the attack, bypass Liang, and cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines to starve the rebel forces. Emperor Jing agreed, and Zhou set out from the capital Chang'an to join his main forces, already gathered at Yingyang. Wu and Chu prepared assassins on the way between Chang'an and Yingyang to assassinate Zhou, but Zhou, having been warned by the soldier Zhao She (趙涉), went by a circuitous route and avoided the assassins.After taking command of his forces, Zhou headed toward Changyi (昌邑, in modern Jining
Jining, Shandong
Jining is a prefecture-level city in southwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders Heze to the southwest, Zaozhuang to the southeast, Tai'an to the northeast, and the provinces of Henan and Jiangsu to the northwest and south respectively...
, Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
) to prepare to cut off the Wu and Chu supply routes. At this time Liang appeared to be in great danger, and Prince Liu Wu sent messenger after messenger to seek immediate assistance from Zhou, which Zhou ignored. Emperor Jing, concerned for his brother, ordered Zhou to head to Liang immediately to save it. Zhou refused, and instead sent a cavalry force to cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly due to the strong defence put up by Prince Wu's generals Han Anguo (韓安國) and Zhang Yu (張羽), headed northeast to attack Zhou. Zhou refused to engage in a direct battle with Wu and Chu forces, but rather concentrated on defending his camp. After being unable to get a decisive victory over Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces began to suffer from starvation and collapsed. Liu Pi fled to Donghai; Donghai killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the Prince of Chu, committed suicide.
Other theaters
The only other theater that Wu forces engaged in was a small one. Liu Pi's guest Zhou Qiu (周丘) was looked down on by Liu Pi, but he, with Liu Pi's approval, had some successes with a surprising plan he hatched. He headed to his home town Xiapei (下邳, in modern XuzhouXuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
) and, under the guise of being an imperial messenger, had the county magistrate killed and took over the county's militia. He then persuaded the people of the county to join the rebellion, and they headed north and had victories over the forces of the Principality of Chengyang (modern southeastern Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
). However, after hearing that Liu Pi had been defeated, Zhou was so taken by anxiety that he died.
Meanwhile, four principalities were besieging the Qi capital Linzi (臨淄, in modern Zibo
Zibo
Zibo is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It borders the provincial capital of Jinan to the west, Laiwu and Tai'an to the southwest, Linyi to the south, Weifang to the east, Dongying to the northeast, and Binzhou the north.Located in the middle part...
, Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
). Liu Jianglü, the Prince of Qi, considered surrendering, but his resolve to resist was strengthened when his messenger Lu (路), who had been captured by the four princes, told him from under the walls of the capital to resist (even though he was under threat from the four princes to persuade Prince Jianglü to surrender). Eventually, Luan Bu and Cao Qi (曹奇), the Marquess of Pingyang, arrived and defeated the four principalities, but at the same time also discovered that Qi had initially been part of the conspiracy. Unable to explain himself, Prince Jianglü committed suicide, but Emperor Jing, having compassion on him, permitted his son Liu Shou (劉壽) to inherit the principality.
Not so fortunate were the princes of the four rebelling principalities. Han Tuidang (韓頹當), the Marquess of Gonggao, wrote a letter to Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, threatening him with utter destruction if he did not surrender. Prince Ang did so and was allowed to commit suicide. The other three princes were captured and executed. The four principalities were seized by the central government.
The final principality to be destroyed was Zhao. While Li Ji was initially unable to prevail in besieging the Zhao capital of Handan (modern Handan
Handan
Handan is a prefecture-level city located in the southwestern part of Hebei Province of China.- History :Handan was the capital of the State of Zhao during the Warring States period , after the capital moved from Zhongmu. The city was conquered by the State of Qin after the virtual annexation of...
, Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
), Zhao's hopes were virtually lost when Xiongnu forces, realizing Zhao was about to be defeated, chose not to join in the battle. When Luan returned from Qi he attacked Handan with Li and was able to capture it by breaking a levee to flood the walls of Handan. Liu Sui, the Prince of Zhao, committed suicide.
Liu Zhi, the Prince of Jibei, who initially wished to join the rebellion, did not share their fate. His official Gongsun Huo (公孫獲) was able to persuade Liu Wu, the Prince of Liang, that Liu Zhi had only pretended to join the rebellion and had in fact contributed to the rebellion's defeat. With Liu Wu's intercession, Prince Zhi was spared and he was instead given the Principality of Zaichuan.
In all, the initially ferocious rebellion lasted only three months before being defeated.
Impact
Emperor Gao had initially created imperial princes with independent military powers with an eye to having them protect the dynasty from outside. By the time of Emperor Jing, however, they were already creating problems by their refusal to follow the imperial government's laws and orders. Had the seven princes prevailed in this conflict, in all likelihood the Han Dynasty would have collapsed into a loose confederation of states. In the aftermath of the rebellion, while the principality system was maintained, the powers of the princes were gradually reduced and the sizes of the principalities reduced as well, under Emperor Jing and his son Emperor WuEmperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
. With the longevity of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese mindset of it being normal to have a unified empire rather than divided states started to settle in.