Republic of Yucatán
Encyclopedia
The Republic of Yucatan was a nineteenth century sovereign state during two periods of the century. The first Republic of Yucatan, founded May 29, 1823, joined the Mexican federation
as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823, less than seven months later. The second Republic of Yucatan emerged in 1841, when the same territory declared its independence from Mexican Federation. This state remained independent until 1848, when it rejoined the Mexican Federation
permanently. The territory includes the modern Mexican states of Yucatan
, Campeche
and Quintana Roo
. Generally speaking, the Republic of Yucatán refers to the Second Republic (1841–1848).
In the second period of autonomy, the people of Yucatan wrote a Constitution, one of the most advanced of its time. This constitution guaranteed terms that remain in its current law: individual rights
, religious freedom and what was at the time a new legal form called amparo
(protection). In 1847, the Caste War caused the Republic of Yucatan to seek military aid from Mexico. This was given in exchange for the return of the Republic's territories to the Mexican Federation.
In 1617, Yucatan was administered as a Captaincy General of New Spain
. Its geographical position gave it some autonomy. During the Spanish Viceroyalty, the province and captaincy of Yucatan covered the current territories of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco
, and Yucatan, plus, nominally, the northern territories of the Petén
and the territory that is currently Belize
. In 1786, the Spanish Crown implemented the system of Intendencias and the territory changed its name to Intendency of Yucatan, which included the same territories.
(call for independence). An army of insurgents began an eleven-year war of independence
that culminated in triumph Mexican victory over the viceroy's armies. In 1821, the Mexicans offered the crown of the new Mexican Empire
to Ferdinand VII or to a member of the Spanish royal family that he would designate. After the refusal of the Spanish monarchy to recognize the independence of Mexico, the (Army of the Three Guarantees
), led by Agustin de Iturbide
and Vincente Guerrero, cut all political and economic dependence on Spain. The Plan of Iguala
established Roman Catholicism as Mexico's religion and equality for all social and ethnic groups in the new empire. These goals were summarized as "Religion, Independence and Unity" (Religión, Independencia y Unión).
Once the independence of Mexican Empire
was declared, Agustín de Iturbide was designated President of the Regency; because of his great popularity and prestige, the Interim Board gave him full authority. Elections for the Constituent Congress were held in December 1821 and January 1822. There is no accurate record of how many deputies were elected, but it has been estimated at about 126, plus 52 given to Guatemala
, Honduras
, Nicaragua
, Chiapas
, former captaincies which also agreed to the Plan of Iguala.
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi
, called The Mexican Thinker, proposed the right of Agustín de Iturbide to be emperor. On May 19, 1822 Valentín Gómez Farías
presented a proposal signed by a minority of 42 deputies to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, citing his extraordinary services as El Libertador (The Liberator). The masses also supported the appointment. Lorenzo de Zavala
, republican and liberal
objected, claiming that the Iturbide's supporters included the old viceroyalty leadership: the clergy, the nobility, and the army (including such men as Antonio López de Santa Anna
. Regardless, Inturbide's coronation took place on July 21, 1822 in the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
, and Agustin I was emperor of Mexico.
, had limited the influence of the viceroy on Yucatecan governance, so did it limit the military effects of Mexico's war of independence. Among the enlightened Yucatecan, the war encouraged a liberated spirit. The Yucatecan intelligentsia
met regularly to discuss the war for independence in central Mexico at the Church of San Juan, located in Merida, Yucatan
. From this church they received their name, the Sanjuanistas. After the promulgation of the Constitution of Cadiz in 1812, Sanjuanistas grew in number, including Vicente María Velázquez (Chaplain of the church of San Juan), Manuel Jiménez Solís, Lorenzo de Zavala and José Matías Quintana, father of Andrés Quintana Roo
. In 1814 King Ferdinand VII abolished the Constitution of Cadiz, and those who gathered in the church of San Juan were persecuted. Some of them arrested and imprisoned, including Lorenzo de Zavala, José Francisco Bates, and Jose Matias Quintana.
In 1820, Lorenzo de Zavala
, a former Sanjuanistas, formed the Patriotic Confederation. A schism developed within the Confederation that resulted in two opposing groups. One included the supporters of the Spanish government and the Constitution of Cádiz
. The other, led by Zavala, sought complete independence from Spain
. To eliminate the opposition, Mariano Carrillo Albornoz, then governor, forced Zavala and another former Sanjuanista, Manuel Garcia Sosa, to accept posts as deputies of the Cortes and sent them to Madrid
; he ordered the other liberals imprisoned.
. This incorporation took place on November 2, 1821.
In December 1822 Antonio López de Santa Anna
and General Guadalupe Victoria
signed the Plan de Casa Mata, a pact through which they sought to abolish the monarchy and transform Mexico into a republic. Initially a supporter of Iturbide, Santa Anna had adopted the republican cause. Agustín I was forced to abdicate and left the country. In May 1823, following Iturbide's resignation, Victoria became the first president of Mexico and Santa Anna became governor of Yucatan. Yucatan joined as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823. Both were founding states of the United Mexican States.
The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824
fully satisfied the ideals of the Yucatecan. The Constitution of Yucatán of 1825 reflects the agreement in principles:
In Mexico two policies that will competed for primacy in the Mexican government at that time. The Federalists argued for the balance of power
among the three branches of state: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Centralists centered all authority on President of the Republic. Federalists ruled in Mexico from the birth of the Republic until 1835, and this corresponds with calm, peaceful relations between Mexico and the Yucatan. In 1835 the Centralists took power in Mexico and appointed the governor of Yucatan. As the Yucatan lost more and more off its autonomy, its people considered more seriously the possibility of their own independence and the formation of a second republic.
had been subsumed into the new Mexican empire and its successor state, the Republic of Mexico, or the United States of Mexico. One of its northernmost territories, Texas
, had been populated mostly by Catholic settlers from the United States
. Mexican centralization conflicted with the ideas of the Anglo-Texans, who decided to seek US volunteers for their own independence. With that support, Texas attained independence and emerged as a republic: curiously, the first vice-president of the Republic of Texas
was Lorenzo de Zavala
, a Mexican born in Yucatan and Minister of Finance in the government of the second Mexican president Vicente Guerrero
.
and on February 12, 1840 issued a report, which stated that federalism should be restored as a form of government to combat poverty in the country. The act required the reestablishment of the Mexican Constitution of 1824
. Six days later, in the presence of troops of the garrison of Mérida
(the Yucatán capital city) under the command of Anastasio Torrens, and many supporters, Captain Santiago Imam proclaimed the independence of the Yucatecan territory. On June 6, 1840, the city of Campeche
surrendered to the Yucatecan Federalists after a military siege. The central government of Mexico declared war on the Yucatan.
On March 16, 1841 at the first City Council meeting in Merida, a crowd led by Miguel Barbachano Terrazo (future governor of Yucatan) broke into the room calling for the independence of Yucatan. Some members of this group lowered the Mexican flag, without considering the consequences, raising in its place a flag called the Yucatecan. Officially a few days after the Mexican flag was removed from boats and buildings in favor of the Yucatecan flag.
On October 1, 1841, the local Chamber of Deputies adopted the Act of Independence of the Yucatan Peninsula. The first article stated:
The Yucatan flag was hoisted first in Yucatec on March 16, 1841, in protest at Santa Anna’s centralization of Mexico. "The flag of Yucatan is divided into two fields: on the left, a field of green; and on the right, another divided in turn into three, red top and bottom, and white in the middle. The field of green features five stars standing for the five departments into which Yucatan was divided by a decree of November 30, 1840, namely: Merida, Izamal, Valladolid, Campeche, and Tekax. The colors of the flag of the Yucatan are identical to those of the Mexican flag, in contrast to the flag of the other republic to declare independence from Mexico, the Republic of Texas, which used the colors of the flag of the United States.
The innovative 1841 Constitution of Yucatan was based on the Constitution of the State of Yucatan in 1825 but also contained a reform package drafted by the liberal lawyer Manuel Crescencio García Rejón. It was promulgated on March 31, 1841 and entered into force on May 16.
Important rights included individual rights as the fundamental rights of all citizens of the state either at home or abroad; the declaration of freedom of religion, in article 79: "none to be molested for his religious views, and those who come to settle in the country, as their descendants, have secured him the public and private exercise of their respective religions." Article 69 established trial by a jury of peers. Article 73 abolished required civil or military service. Section I of Article 62 re-established the Amparo
, the process of legal protection which is based on the idea of limiting the power of government authorities.
, Antonio López de Santa Anna executed a coup, removing Anastasio Bustamante
. Santa Anna radicalized the centralist position of his government. Santa Anna, the new president, commissioned Andrés Quintana Roo
, a native of Merida, to establish a dialogue with the Yucatecan authorities and Yucatecan Congress in order to return to Mexico. The Andrés Quintana Roo‘s commission worked and the treaties of 28 and 29 November 1841 were signed. In them, Yucatan retain their customs and tariff laws and the free entry of goods to ports of the Republic, among other benefits to Yucatan.
In Mexico City, the treaties between Andrés Quintana Roo and Yucatan were ignored. The central governments required Yucatan join Mexico and fully accept the Plan of Tacubaya, Yucatan territory should be subject to all laws of Congress established by the Santa Anna. It also required that Yucatan break all relations with the Republic of Texas
because Mexico was at war with the Texans. Attempts were made through several diplomatic channels to resolve the problems, but all failed.
, Campeche
), including four warships and commanded by Captain Thomas Marin. Marin demanded that the Yucatan return to Mexico. A few days later his soldiers took the island without encountering armed resistance.
Control of this island gave the Mexican military a strategic base between the Mexican mainland and the Yucatecan peninsula. Water travel provided the fastest route between Yucatan and Mexico. There were no land routes through the jungles, and the sharp curve of the peninsula meant that the shortest distance between Valladolid, and Mexico City was over water.
Marin's small force was reinforced by Santa Anna’s army of four thousand men brought from Veracruz
and moved to his next goal: Campeche
, a city that was protected by thick walls, built during the colonial era, to defend the city from pirate attacks. The Mexican army took the city of Champoton
, and after several failed attempts to take Campeche decided to go on the capital, Merida. The army landed at the port of Telchac Puerto
and took one by one Telchac Pueblo
, Motul and Tixkokob
.
The Mexican army arrived at the Pacabtún’s farm in Merida, where it learned that Yucatan had already prepared the defense of Merida and had the reinforcement of eleven thousand Mayan
indigenous soldiers. On April 24, 1843 general Peña y Barragán (Mexican centralist), surrendered and agreed to withdraw his troops by sea to Tampico
in the state of Tamaulipas
.
Yucatan proposed several conditions to the central government. Santa Anna agreed to several conditions giving full autonomy to the Yucatan on December 5, 1843. Yucatan resumed trade with Mexico and the Republic retained its sovereignty. The situation was short-lived. The Mexican government on February 21, 1844 ruled that unique rights and autonomy awarded to Yucatan were unconstitutional. In late 1845, the Mexican Congress revoked the Conventions of December 1843 and the Assembly of Yucatán to declare its independence on January 1, 1846.
, and the partisans of Campeche, led by Santiago Méndez
. This rivalry was so pointed that by early 1847 Yucatan had a government in both camps. To this should also be added a third group, the indigenous Maya, who formed the bulk of the Yucatecan military and manual labor force.
In 1846, the Mexican government returned to the 1824 Constitution, restoring Mexican federalism. The Merida-Barbachano faction received the news enthusiastically and agreed to rejoin Mexico on November 2, 1846. On the other side, the Campeche-Mendez faction claimed that any reunion with Mexico would involve Yucatan in a war with the United States. In October 1846, the United States' fleet took Ciudad del Carmen, and blockaded the territory. On January 21, 1847, Santiago Mendez moved the Yucatan capital to Campeche which, within a few months, was also cut off by the United States' navy from trade with Texas, Mérida and Mexico. At the same time, the Mayans, who paid high taxes, provided most manual and unskilled labor and formed most of the rank and file of the military, took up arms against the whites and mestizos on July 30, 1847 at Tepich, spreading terror and causing considerable destruction and disruption of communications.
Between the US blockade and the Mayan uprising (called the Caste War), the Mendez government faced a critical problem of internal security and protection of trade. Mendez sent a delegation, led by Judge Jose Rovira, to Washington D.C. to argue that Yucatan's neutrality in Mexican American War should protect it from hostile blockade. They highlighted the Yucatan independence from Mexico based on the injustices committed by the Mexican central government and that their trade with the Gulf of Mexico
was crucial. Rovira apparently considered suggesting the annexation of the Yucatan by the United States.
The Mendez government succeeded in recovering part of Yucatan territory lost to the Maya: the cities Izamal
, Tunkás, Ticul
, Tekax
and Yaxcabá
as well as Calotmul and Valladolid
, with the help of troops from Mexico. Marcelo Pat's death, the son of Jacinto, forced him to abandon the struggle. Eventually, the Caste War overwhelmed Yucatan efforts at security and internal stability.
In desperation, President Santiago Mendez offered Yucatecan sovereignty in exchange for military assistance to the governor of the island of Cuba
, the admiral of Jamaica
, the ministers of Spain
and England
, but none responded to his pleas. Finally, the Yucatecan delegation in Washington made a formal offer for the annexation of Yucatan to the United States, an argument that appealed to some of the radical expansionists and the Young America movement
. President James Knox Polk was pleased with the idea and the Yucatan Bill passed the U.S. House of Representatives, but was discarded by the Senate. The war with Mexico
had become more complicated than anticipated, and the US Congress did not want a second war with the indigenous of Yucatan.
Mexican President José Joaquín Herrera, was welcomed to Barbachano, and July 14 of 1848 gave 150,000 pesos Yucatan (of 3 million that the U.S. gave to Mexico as payment for territory acquired in the Mexican-American War) and sent arms and ammunition Yucatan. The Mexican Government sent the following message to Barbachano:
The rebellion of the indigenous Maya was put down in August 1848 and August 17 of that year, Barbachano ordered the resumption of a confederation of Mexico and the restoration of the 1825 Constitution of the Yucatan.
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823, less than seven months later. The second Republic of Yucatan emerged in 1841, when the same territory declared its independence from Mexican Federation. This state remained independent until 1848, when it rejoined the Mexican Federation
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
permanently. The territory includes the modern Mexican states of Yucatan
Yucatán
Yucatán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities and its capital city is Mérida....
, Campeche
Campeche
Campeche is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in Southeast Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Yucatán to the north east, Quintana Roo to the east, and Tabasco to the south west...
and Quintana Roo
Quintana Roo
Quintana Roo officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Quintana Roo is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 10 municipalities and its capital city is Chetumal....
. Generally speaking, the Republic of Yucatán refers to the Second Republic (1841–1848).
In the second period of autonomy, the people of Yucatan wrote a Constitution, one of the most advanced of its time. This constitution guaranteed terms that remain in its current law: individual rights
Individual rights
Group rights are rights held by a group rather than by its members separately, or rights held only by individuals within the specified group; in contrast, individual rights are rights held by individual people regardless of their group membership or lack thereof...
, religious freedom and what was at the time a new legal form called amparo
Amparo (law)
The writ of amparo is a remedy for the protection of constitutional rights, found in certain jurisdictions...
(protection). In 1847, the Caste War caused the Republic of Yucatan to seek military aid from Mexico. This was given in exchange for the return of the Republic's territories to the Mexican Federation.
Colonial Era and Independence from Spain
In 1617, Yucatan was administered as a Captaincy General of New Spain
New Spain
New Spain, formally called the Viceroyalty of New Spain , was a viceroyalty of the Spanish colonial empire, comprising primarily territories in what was known then as 'América Septentrional' or North America. Its capital was Mexico City, formerly Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire...
. Its geographical position gave it some autonomy. During the Spanish Viceroyalty, the province and captaincy of Yucatan covered the current territories of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco
Tabasco
Tabasco officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Tabasco is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 17 municipalities and its capital city is Villahermosa....
, and Yucatan, plus, nominally, the northern territories of the Petén
Petén
Petén or Peten may refer to:*Petén , a department of Guatemala*Petén Basin, the geographical / archaeological region of Mesoamerica and a center of the Maya civilization*Lake Petén Itzá, a lake in the Petén Basin region...
and the territory that is currently Belize
Belize
Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official...
. In 1786, the Spanish Crown implemented the system of Intendencias and the territory changed its name to Intendency of Yucatan, which included the same territories.
War of Mexican Independence
In 1810, the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla issued the Grito de DoloresGrito de Dolores
The Grito de Dolores also known as El Grito de la Independencia , uttered from the small town of Dolores, near Guanajuato on April 19, 1810 is the event that marks the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence and is the most important national holiday observed in Mexico...
(call for independence). An army of insurgents began an eleven-year war of independence
Mexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
that culminated in triumph Mexican victory over the viceroy's armies. In 1821, the Mexicans offered the crown of the new Mexican Empire
First Mexican Empire
The Mexican Empire was the official name of independent Mexico under a monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823. The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendencies and provinces of New Spain proper...
to Ferdinand VII or to a member of the Spanish royal family that he would designate. After the refusal of the Spanish monarchy to recognize the independence of Mexico, the (Army of the Three Guarantees
Army of the Three Guarantees
At the end of the Mexican War of Independence, the Army of the Three Guarantees was the name given to the army after the unification of the Spanish troops led by Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgent troops of Vicente Guerrero, consolidating Mexico's independence from Spain...
), led by Agustin de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
and Vincente Guerrero, cut all political and economic dependence on Spain. The Plan of Iguala
Plan of Iguala
Plan of Iguala, also known as Plan of the Three Guarantees , was a peace treaty proclaimed on February 24, 1821, in the final stage of Mexican War of Independence from Spain. The plan attempted to establish a constitutional foundation upon which an independent Mexican Empire would be based...
established Roman Catholicism as Mexico's religion and equality for all social and ethnic groups in the new empire. These goals were summarized as "Religion, Independence and Unity" (Religión, Independencia y Unión).
Once the independence of Mexican Empire
First Mexican Empire
The Mexican Empire was the official name of independent Mexico under a monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823. The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendencies and provinces of New Spain proper...
was declared, Agustín de Iturbide was designated President of the Regency; because of his great popularity and prestige, the Interim Board gave him full authority. Elections for the Constituent Congress were held in December 1821 and January 1822. There is no accurate record of how many deputies were elected, but it has been estimated at about 126, plus 52 given to Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast...
, Honduras
Honduras
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize...
, Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
, Chiapas
Chiapas
Chiapas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 118 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutierrez. Other important cites in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las...
, former captaincies which also agreed to the Plan of Iguala.
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi , Mexican writer and political journalist, best known as the author of El Periquillo Sarniento , reputed to be the first novel written in Latin America....
, called The Mexican Thinker, proposed the right of Agustín de Iturbide to be emperor. On May 19, 1822 Valentín Gómez Farías
Valentín Gómez Farías
Valentín Gómez Farías was several times acting President of Mexico in the 1830s and 1840s.Gomez Farias was one of the more important political figures in early Mexico. The first presidency of Santa Anna from 1833 to 1836 was a temporary victory for the Mexican Liberals...
presented a proposal signed by a minority of 42 deputies to proclaim Iturbide as Emperor, citing his extraordinary services as El Libertador (The Liberator). The masses also supported the appointment. Lorenzo de Zavala
Lorenzo de Zavala
Manuel Lorenzo Justiniano de Zavala y Saenz was a 19th-century Mexican politician. He served as finance minister under President Vicente Guerrero. A colonizer and statesman, he was also the interim Vice President of the Republic of Texas, serving under interim President David G...
, republican and liberal
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
objected, claiming that the Iturbide's supporters included the old viceroyalty leadership: the clergy, the nobility, and the army (including such men as Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
. Regardless, Inturbide's coronation took place on July 21, 1822 in the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary of Mexico City is the largest and oldest cathedral in the Americas and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico. It is situated atop the former Aztec sacred precinct near the Templo Mayor on the northern side of the Plaza de la...
, and Agustin I was emperor of Mexico.
Impact of Mexican Independence
Just as Yucatan's geographical remoteness from the center of New Spain, specifically from Mexico CityMexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, had limited the influence of the viceroy on Yucatecan governance, so did it limit the military effects of Mexico's war of independence. Among the enlightened Yucatecan, the war encouraged a liberated spirit. The Yucatecan intelligentsia
Intelligentsia
The intelligentsia is a social class of people engaged in complex, mental and creative labor directed to the development and dissemination of culture, encompassing intellectuals and social groups close to them...
met regularly to discuss the war for independence in central Mexico at the Church of San Juan, located in Merida, Yucatan
Mérida, Yucatán
Mérida is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Yucatán and the Yucatán Peninsula. It is located in the northwest part of the state, about from the Gulf of Mexico coast...
. From this church they received their name, the Sanjuanistas. After the promulgation of the Constitution of Cadiz in 1812, Sanjuanistas grew in number, including Vicente María Velázquez (Chaplain of the church of San Juan), Manuel Jiménez Solís, Lorenzo de Zavala and José Matías Quintana, father of Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo was a Mexican liberal politician and author. He was one of the most influential men in the War of Independence and served as a member of the Congress of Chilpancingo...
. In 1814 King Ferdinand VII abolished the Constitution of Cadiz, and those who gathered in the church of San Juan were persecuted. Some of them arrested and imprisoned, including Lorenzo de Zavala, José Francisco Bates, and Jose Matias Quintana.
In 1820, Lorenzo de Zavala
Lorenzo de Zavala
Manuel Lorenzo Justiniano de Zavala y Saenz was a 19th-century Mexican politician. He served as finance minister under President Vicente Guerrero. A colonizer and statesman, he was also the interim Vice President of the Republic of Texas, serving under interim President David G...
, a former Sanjuanistas, formed the Patriotic Confederation. A schism developed within the Confederation that resulted in two opposing groups. One included the supporters of the Spanish government and the Constitution of Cádiz
Spanish Constitution of 1812
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain, while in refuge from the Peninsular War...
. The other, led by Zavala, sought complete independence from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
. To eliminate the opposition, Mariano Carrillo Albornoz, then governor, forced Zavala and another former Sanjuanista, Manuel Garcia Sosa, to accept posts as deputies of the Cortes and sent them to Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
; he ordered the other liberals imprisoned.
Federal pact with Mexico
Echeverri, who succeeded Carrillo Albornoz in 1821, proclaimed the independence of the peninsula and sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation of Yucatan into the Mexican EmpireFirst Mexican Empire
The Mexican Empire was the official name of independent Mexico under a monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823. The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendencies and provinces of New Spain proper...
. This incorporation took place on November 2, 1821.
In December 1822 Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio López de Santa Anna
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón , often known as Santa Anna or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government...
and General Guadalupe Victoria
Guadalupe Victoria
Guadalupe Victoria born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, was a Mexican politician and military man who fought for independence against the Spanish Empire in the Mexican War of Independence. He was a deputy for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power...
signed the Plan de Casa Mata, a pact through which they sought to abolish the monarchy and transform Mexico into a republic. Initially a supporter of Iturbide, Santa Anna had adopted the republican cause. Agustín I was forced to abdicate and left the country. In May 1823, following Iturbide's resignation, Victoria became the first president of Mexico and Santa Anna became governor of Yucatan. Yucatan joined as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823. Both were founding states of the United Mexican States.
The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824
1824 Constitution of Mexico
The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824 was enacted on October 4 of 1824, after the overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with...
fully satisfied the ideals of the Yucatecan. The Constitution of Yucatán of 1825 reflects the agreement in principles:
Yucatan swears that recognizes and responds to the government of Mexico, only if it is liberal and representative; and with the condition that: The union of Yucatan is that of a Federated Republic, and not otherwise, and therefore entitled to form their particular Constitution and establish the laws that it deems necessary to its happiness.
In Mexico two policies that will competed for primacy in the Mexican government at that time. The Federalists argued for the balance of power
Balance of power (federalism)
In federations, the balance of power is the degree to which power is centralized in the federal government or devolved to the subnational governments. In confederations , it is more likely that the balance of power will be in favour of the sub-national level of government . Canada is an example of...
among the three branches of state: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Centralists centered all authority on President of the Republic. Federalists ruled in Mexico from the birth of the Republic until 1835, and this corresponds with calm, peaceful relations between Mexico and the Yucatan. In 1835 the Centralists took power in Mexico and appointed the governor of Yucatan. As the Yucatan lost more and more off its autonomy, its people considered more seriously the possibility of their own independence and the formation of a second republic.
Second Republic of Yucatan
An important case set a precedent for the independence of the Yucatan and the formation of a new republic. As Mexico had won its independence from Spain, several provinces on the periphery of New SpainNew Spain
New Spain, formally called the Viceroyalty of New Spain , was a viceroyalty of the Spanish colonial empire, comprising primarily territories in what was known then as 'América Septentrional' or North America. Its capital was Mexico City, formerly Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire...
had been subsumed into the new Mexican empire and its successor state, the Republic of Mexico, or the United States of Mexico. One of its northernmost territories, Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
, had been populated mostly by Catholic settlers from the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Mexican centralization conflicted with the ideas of the Anglo-Texans, who decided to seek US volunteers for their own independence. With that support, Texas attained independence and emerged as a republic: curiously, the first vice-president of the Republic of Texas
Republic of Texas
The Republic of Texas was an independent nation in North America, bordering the United States and Mexico, that existed from 1836 to 1846.Formed as a break-away republic from Mexico by the Texas Revolution, the state claimed borders that encompassed an area that included all of the present U.S...
was Lorenzo de Zavala
Lorenzo de Zavala
Manuel Lorenzo Justiniano de Zavala y Saenz was a 19th-century Mexican politician. He served as finance minister under President Vicente Guerrero. A colonizer and statesman, he was also the interim Vice President of the Republic of Texas, serving under interim President David G...
, a Mexican born in Yucatan and Minister of Finance in the government of the second Mexican president Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and served briefly as President of Mexico...
.
Declaration of Independence
The federal army of Yucatan, commanded by Captain Santiago Imam, took the city of ValladolidValladolid, Yucatán
Valladolid is a small city in Valladolid Municipality in the southeastern part of the Mexican state of Yucatán. Valladolid is in the inland eastern part of the state....
and on February 12, 1840 issued a report, which stated that federalism should be restored as a form of government to combat poverty in the country. The act required the reestablishment of the Mexican Constitution of 1824
1824 Constitution of Mexico
The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824 was enacted on October 4 of 1824, after the overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with...
. Six days later, in the presence of troops of the garrison of Mérida
Mérida, Yucatán
Mérida is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Yucatán and the Yucatán Peninsula. It is located in the northwest part of the state, about from the Gulf of Mexico coast...
(the Yucatán capital city) under the command of Anastasio Torrens, and many supporters, Captain Santiago Imam proclaimed the independence of the Yucatecan territory. On June 6, 1840, the city of Campeche
Campeche
Campeche is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in Southeast Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Yucatán to the north east, Quintana Roo to the east, and Tabasco to the south west...
surrendered to the Yucatecan Federalists after a military siege. The central government of Mexico declared war on the Yucatan.
On March 16, 1841 at the first City Council meeting in Merida, a crowd led by Miguel Barbachano Terrazo (future governor of Yucatan) broke into the room calling for the independence of Yucatan. Some members of this group lowered the Mexican flag, without considering the consequences, raising in its place a flag called the Yucatecan. Officially a few days after the Mexican flag was removed from boats and buildings in favor of the Yucatecan flag.
On October 1, 1841, the local Chamber of Deputies adopted the Act of Independence of the Yucatan Peninsula. The first article stated:
The people of Yucatan, in the full exercise of its sovereignty is becoming free and independent republic of the Mexican nation....
The Yucatan flag was hoisted first in Yucatec on March 16, 1841, in protest at Santa Anna’s centralization of Mexico. "The flag of Yucatan is divided into two fields: on the left, a field of green; and on the right, another divided in turn into three, red top and bottom, and white in the middle. The field of green features five stars standing for the five departments into which Yucatan was divided by a decree of November 30, 1840, namely: Merida, Izamal, Valladolid, Campeche, and Tekax. The colors of the flag of the Yucatan are identical to those of the Mexican flag, in contrast to the flag of the other republic to declare independence from Mexico, the Republic of Texas, which used the colors of the flag of the United States.
Yucatecan Constitution of 1841
Important rights included individual rights as the fundamental rights of all citizens of the state either at home or abroad; the declaration of freedom of religion, in article 79: "none to be molested for his religious views, and those who come to settle in the country, as their descendants, have secured him the public and private exercise of their respective religions." Article 69 established trial by a jury of peers. Article 73 abolished required civil or military service. Section I of Article 62 re-established the Amparo
Amparo (law)
The writ of amparo is a remedy for the protection of constitutional rights, found in certain jurisdictions...
, the process of legal protection which is based on the idea of limiting the power of government authorities.
Santa Anna's coup and the Mexican rapprochement
In October 1841, with insurgents from TacubayaTacubaya
Tacubaya is a section of Mexico City located in the west in the Miguel Hidalgo borough. The area has been inhabited since before the Christian era, with its name coming from Nahuatl meaning “where water is gathered.” From the colonial period to the beginning of the 20th century, Tacubaya was...
, Antonio López de Santa Anna executed a coup, removing Anastasio Bustamante
Anastasio Bustamante
Anastasio Bustamante y Oseguera was president of Mexico three times, from 1830 to 1832, from 1837 to 1839 and from 1839 to 1841. He was a Conservative. He first came to power by leading a coup against president Vicente Guerrero...
. Santa Anna radicalized the centralist position of his government. Santa Anna, the new president, commissioned Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo
Andrés Quintana Roo was a Mexican liberal politician and author. He was one of the most influential men in the War of Independence and served as a member of the Congress of Chilpancingo...
, a native of Merida, to establish a dialogue with the Yucatecan authorities and Yucatecan Congress in order to return to Mexico. The Andrés Quintana Roo‘s commission worked and the treaties of 28 and 29 November 1841 were signed. In them, Yucatan retain their customs and tariff laws and the free entry of goods to ports of the Republic, among other benefits to Yucatan.
In Mexico City, the treaties between Andrés Quintana Roo and Yucatan were ignored. The central governments required Yucatan join Mexico and fully accept the Plan of Tacubaya, Yucatan territory should be subject to all laws of Congress established by the Santa Anna. It also required that Yucatan break all relations with the Republic of Texas
Republic of Texas
The Republic of Texas was an independent nation in North America, bordering the United States and Mexico, that existed from 1836 to 1846.Formed as a break-away republic from Mexico by the Texas Revolution, the state claimed borders that encompassed an area that included all of the present U.S...
because Mexico was at war with the Texans. Attempts were made through several diplomatic channels to resolve the problems, but all failed.
Armed invasion of the Peninsula
Failing in the attempt to subdue Yucatan with words, Santa Anna sent military forces to the peninsula to hunt for the federalists. On August, 1842, a Mexican military squadron formed of the coast of the island Carmen (now Ciudad del CarmenCiudad del Carmen
Ciudad del Carmen is a city in the southwest of the Mexican state of Campeche. Ciudad del Carmen is located at on the southwest of Carmen Island, which stands in the Laguna de Términos on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. The 2005 census population was 154,197 people...
, Campeche
Campeche
Campeche is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in Southeast Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Yucatán to the north east, Quintana Roo to the east, and Tabasco to the south west...
), including four warships and commanded by Captain Thomas Marin. Marin demanded that the Yucatan return to Mexico. A few days later his soldiers took the island without encountering armed resistance.
Control of this island gave the Mexican military a strategic base between the Mexican mainland and the Yucatecan peninsula. Water travel provided the fastest route between Yucatan and Mexico. There were no land routes through the jungles, and the sharp curve of the peninsula meant that the shortest distance between Valladolid, and Mexico City was over water.
Marin's small force was reinforced by Santa Anna’s army of four thousand men brought from Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
and moved to his next goal: Campeche
Campeche, Campeche
San Francisco de Campeche is the capital city of the Mexican state of Campeche, located at,...
, a city that was protected by thick walls, built during the colonial era, to defend the city from pirate attacks. The Mexican army took the city of Champoton
Champotón
Champotón is a small city in Champotón Municipality in the Mexican state of Campeche, located at , about 60 km south of the city of Campeche where the small Champotón river meets the coast of the Gulf of Mexico...
, and after several failed attempts to take Campeche decided to go on the capital, Merida. The army landed at the port of Telchac Puerto
Telchac Puerto
This port town is located about one hour north east of the City of Merida and 30 minutes from Progreso, making it just far enough away from the denser population areas so that it maintains a laid-back feeling....
and took one by one Telchac Pueblo
Telchac Pueblo
The Municipality of Telchac Pueblo is a small town of farmers and merchants, located to the north of the Yucatán Peninsula, is one of the 106 municipalities of the Mexican state of Yucatán.- Toponomy :...
, Motul and Tixkokob
Tixkokob
Tixkokob is a town in the Mexican state of Yucatán, located in the north central part of the state. It is the seat of the municipality of Tixkokob and is located about 24 miles east of the city of Mérida...
.
The Mexican army arrived at the Pacabtún’s farm in Merida, where it learned that Yucatan had already prepared the defense of Merida and had the reinforcement of eleven thousand Mayan
Maya peoples
The Maya people constitute a diverse range of the Native American people of southern Mexico and northern Central America. The overarching term "Maya" is a collective designation to include the peoples of the region who share some degree of cultural and linguistic heritage; however, the term...
indigenous soldiers. On April 24, 1843 general Peña y Barragán (Mexican centralist), surrendered and agreed to withdraw his troops by sea to Tampico
Tampico
Tampico is a city and port in the state of Tamaulipas, in the country of Mexico. It is located in the southeastern part of the state, directly north across the border from Veracruz. Tampico is the third largest city in Tamaulipas, and counts with a population of 309,003. The Metropolitan area of...
in the state of Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas
Tamaulipas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 43 municipalities and its capital city is Ciudad Victoria. The capital city was named after Guadalupe Victoria, the...
.
Rapprochement: Temporary Return to Mexico
Despite the withdrawal, Santa Anna refused to recognize the independence of Yucatan and banned the entry of ships under flag of Yucatán to Mexican territory. He also prohibited the transit of Mexican ships to Yucatan. This overturned all Yucatecan trade with the mainland of Mexico, causing deep economic problems. Barbachano, knowing that Santa Anna was defeated in the military by Yucatan, decided to negotiate with the central government.Yucatan proposed several conditions to the central government. Santa Anna agreed to several conditions giving full autonomy to the Yucatan on December 5, 1843. Yucatan resumed trade with Mexico and the Republic retained its sovereignty. The situation was short-lived. The Mexican government on February 21, 1844 ruled that unique rights and autonomy awarded to Yucatan were unconstitutional. In late 1845, the Mexican Congress revoked the Conventions of December 1843 and the Assembly of Yucatán to declare its independence on January 1, 1846.
Second period of separation
Yucatan had additional conflicts, in addition to the one with Mexico. Political Yucatecans were divided between the partisans of Mérida, led by Miguel BarbachanoMiguel Barbachano
Miguel Barbachano y Tarrazo was a liberal Yucatecan politician, who was 5 times governor of Yucatán between 1841 and 1853....
, and the partisans of Campeche, led by Santiago Méndez
Santiago Méndez
Santiago Méndez Ibarra was governor of Yucatán, Mexico 3 times from 1840 to 1857: 1840 - 1844; 1847 - 1848; 1855 - 1857, alternating that office with Miguel Barbachano mainly during his first and second terms....
. This rivalry was so pointed that by early 1847 Yucatan had a government in both camps. To this should also be added a third group, the indigenous Maya, who formed the bulk of the Yucatecan military and manual labor force.
In 1846, the Mexican government returned to the 1824 Constitution, restoring Mexican federalism. The Merida-Barbachano faction received the news enthusiastically and agreed to rejoin Mexico on November 2, 1846. On the other side, the Campeche-Mendez faction claimed that any reunion with Mexico would involve Yucatan in a war with the United States. In October 1846, the United States' fleet took Ciudad del Carmen, and blockaded the territory. On January 21, 1847, Santiago Mendez moved the Yucatan capital to Campeche which, within a few months, was also cut off by the United States' navy from trade with Texas, Mérida and Mexico. At the same time, the Mayans, who paid high taxes, provided most manual and unskilled labor and formed most of the rank and file of the military, took up arms against the whites and mestizos on July 30, 1847 at Tepich, spreading terror and causing considerable destruction and disruption of communications.
Between the US blockade and the Mayan uprising (called the Caste War), the Mendez government faced a critical problem of internal security and protection of trade. Mendez sent a delegation, led by Judge Jose Rovira, to Washington D.C. to argue that Yucatan's neutrality in Mexican American War should protect it from hostile blockade. They highlighted the Yucatan independence from Mexico based on the injustices committed by the Mexican central government and that their trade with the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...
was crucial. Rovira apparently considered suggesting the annexation of the Yucatan by the United States.
The Mendez government succeeded in recovering part of Yucatan territory lost to the Maya: the cities Izamal
Izamal
Izamal is a small city in the Mexican state of Yucatán, 72 km east of state capital Mérida. Izamal was continuously occupied throughout most of Mesoamerican chronology; in 2000, the city's estimated population was 15,000 people...
, Tunkás, Ticul
Ticul
Ticul is one of 106 municipalities in Yucatán state, Mexico. It is located in the western part of the state at 100 km south of the state capital city of Mérida. The municipality, which has an area of 355.12 km² , in the 2005 census reported 25,621 inhabitants...
, Tekax
Tekax
Tekax, sometimes spelled Tecax , is a small city in the Mexican state of Yucatán, located at in the southernmost part of the state. Tekax means "Place of the Forests" in the Yucatec Maya language. Tekax was briefly declared the capital of Yucatán in 1845...
and Yaxcabá
Yaxcabá
The Municipality of Yaxcabá is one of the 106 subdivisions of the State of Yucatán in Mexico. Its municipal seat is located in the City of Yaxcabá.Yaxcabá means place of green earth.-Location:...
as well as Calotmul and Valladolid
Valladolid
Valladolid is a historic city and municipality in north-central Spain, situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within three wine-making regions: Ribera del Duero, Rueda and Cigales...
, with the help of troops from Mexico. Marcelo Pat's death, the son of Jacinto, forced him to abandon the struggle. Eventually, the Caste War overwhelmed Yucatan efforts at security and internal stability.
In desperation, President Santiago Mendez offered Yucatecan sovereignty in exchange for military assistance to the governor of the island of Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
, the admiral of Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
, the ministers of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, but none responded to his pleas. Finally, the Yucatecan delegation in Washington made a formal offer for the annexation of Yucatan to the United States, an argument that appealed to some of the radical expansionists and the Young America movement
Young America movement
The Young America Movement was an American political and cultural attitude in the mid-nineteenth century. Inspired by European reform movements of the 1830s , the American group was formed as a political organization in 1845 by Edwin de Leon and George H. Evans...
. President James Knox Polk was pleased with the idea and the Yucatan Bill passed the U.S. House of Representatives, but was discarded by the Senate. The war with Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
had become more complicated than anticipated, and the US Congress did not want a second war with the indigenous of Yucatan.
Final Return to Mexico
Mendez decided to return to the government of Yucatan to Miguel Barbachano, who took office in April 1848. The first thing Barbachano did as governor was inform the government of Mexico, who resided in the city of Querétaro, the distressing situation of the war of castes and seek economic and military assistance.Mexican President José Joaquín Herrera, was welcomed to Barbachano, and July 14 of 1848 gave 150,000 pesos Yucatan (of 3 million that the U.S. gave to Mexico as payment for territory acquired in the Mexican-American War) and sent arms and ammunition Yucatan. The Mexican Government sent the following message to Barbachano:
Mr. Governor, will be useless after exposure to me the wishes of the nation, the feelings of the representatives, and the conduct of the Government of Yucatan if I don’t extended for the purpose of convincing the intensity of interest in the fate of the excited state and the government decision to save. For all the current administration should not be remembered past misfortunes, but as a harsh lesson that we all have a duty to repair indicates both misfortune. The President sees no more than one in Yucatan and very interesting part of the Union, or its citizens more than our brothers handed over to the relentless fury of the wild.
The rebellion of the indigenous Maya was put down in August 1848 and August 17 of that year, Barbachano ordered the resumption of a confederation of Mexico and the restoration of the 1825 Constitution of the Yucatan.
See also
- YucatanYucatánYucatán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities and its capital city is Mérida....
- Republic of TexasRepublic of TexasThe Republic of Texas was an independent nation in North America, bordering the United States and Mexico, that existed from 1836 to 1846.Formed as a break-away republic from Mexico by the Texas Revolution, the state claimed borders that encompassed an area that included all of the present U.S...
- Republic of the Rio GrandeRepublic of the Rio GrandeThe Republic of the Rio Grande was an independent nation that insurgents against the Central Mexican Government sought to establish in northern Mexico. The rebellion lasted from January 17 to November 6, 1840 and the Republic of the Rio Grande was never officially recognized.- Background :After a...
- Mexican-American War
- Caste War
- Territorial evolution of MexicoTerritorial evolution of MexicoMexico has experienced many changes in territorial organization during its history as an independent state, especially as the territorial boundaries of Mexico were affected by presidential and imperial decrees...