The Royal Medal, also known as The Queen's Medal, is a silver-gilt

Silver-gilt

Silver-gilt or gilded/gilt silver, sometimes known in American English by the French term vermeil, is silver gilded with gold. Most large objects made in goldsmithing that appear to be gold are actually silver-gilt; for example most sporting trophies, medals , and many crown jewels...

 medal awarded each year by the Royal Society

Royal Society

The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...

, two for "the most important contributions to the advancement of natural knowledge" and one for "distinguished contributions in the applied sciences" made within the Commonwealth of Nations

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...

. The award was created by George IV

George IV of the United Kingdom

George IV was the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and also of Hanover from the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820 until his own death ten years later...

 and first awarded in 1826. Initially there were two medals awarded, both for the most important discovery within the last year, a time period which was lengthened to five years and then shortened to three. The format was supported by William IV

William IV of the United Kingdom

William IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death...

 and Victoria

Victoria of the United Kingdom

Victoria was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India....

, who had the conditions changed in 1837 so that mathematics

Mathematics

Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...

 was a subject for which a Royal Medal could be awarded, albeit only every third year. The conditions were changed again in 1850 so that:

... the Royal Medals in each year should be awarded for the two most important contributions to the advancement of Natural Knowledge, published originally in Her Majesty's dominions within a period of not more than ten years and not less than one year of the date of the award, subject, of course, to Her Majesty's approval. ... in the award of the Royal Medals, one should be given in each of the two great divisions of Natural Knowledge.

In 1965, the system was changed to its current format, in which three Medals are awarded annually by the Monarch on the recommendation of the Royal Society Council. Because of its dual nature (covering both physical and biological science) the award winners are chosen by both the A- and B-side Award Committees. Since its establishment in 1826 the medal has been awarded 405 times.

List of recipients

Year	Name	Field	Rationale
1826		Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...	"For his Paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the Philosophical Transactions Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society of London. It was established in 1665, making it the first journal in the world exclusively devoted to science, and it has remained in continuous publication ever since, making it the world's...  for the year 1823; and his other valuable Papers on Mathematical Subjects."
		Physics Physics Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...	"For his development of the Atomic Theory and his other important labours and discoveries in Physical Science."
1827		Astronomy	"For his Work, entitled, Catalogus Novus Stellarum Duplicium."
		Physics	"For his Bakerian Lecture Bakerian Lecture The Bakerian Lecture is a prize lecture of the Royal Society, a lecture on physical sciences.In 1775 Henry Baker left £100 for a spoken lecture by a Fellow on such part of natural history or experimental philosophy as the Society shall determine.... , On the Relations of Electrical Changes, considered as the last link, in the order of time, of the splendid chain of Discoveries in Chemical Electricity, which has been continued for so many years of his valuable life."
1828		Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...	"For his Accurate Determination of the Orbit of a Comet of short period, as confirmed by observation."
		Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....	"For his communication, entitled, On a method of rendering Platina malleable, being the conclusion of a series of researches on the properties of the Metallic Bodies contained in the Ores of Platina Platinum Platinum is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pt and an atomic number of 78. Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina del Pinto, which is literally translated into "little silver of the Pinto River." It is a dense, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal... ."
1829		Anatomy Anatomy Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...	"For his Discoveries relating to the Nervous System."
		Chemistry	"For his Discoveries relating to the Laws of Crystallization, and the Properties of Crystals."
1830		Chemistry	"For his Discovery of Brome Bromine Bromine ") is a chemical element with the symbol Br, an atomic number of 35, and an atomic mass of 79.904. It is in the halogen element group. The element was isolated independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Löwig and Antoine Jerome Balard, in 1825–1826... ."
		Physics	"For his Communications to the Royal Society on the Polarization and other Properties of Light."
1831	No award
1832	No award
1833		Botany Botany Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Traditionally, botany also included the study of fungi, algae and viruses...	"For his Researches and Investigations in Vegetable Physiology, as detailed in his Work, entitled, Physiologie Vegetale."
		Astronomy	"For his Paper "on the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving Double Stars," inserted in the Fifth Volume of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society."
1834		Geology Geology Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...	"For his Work, entitled, Principles of Geology Principles of Geology Principles of Geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface, by reference to causes now in operation, is a book by the Scottish geologist Charles Lyell.... ."
		Physics	"For his Papers on the Tides published in the Philosophical Transactions."
1835		Chemistry	"For his investigations and discoveries contained in the series of experimental researches in electricity published in the Philosophical Transactions, and more particularly for the seventh series, relating to the definite nature of electrochemical action."
		Physics	"For the papers published by him in the 16th and 17th volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, entitled Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays, and more particularly for those investigations at the conclusion of the third and last supplement, which relate to the discovery of conic refraction."
1836		Anatomy	"For his series of investigations on the anatomy and physiology of insects, contained in his two papers published in the Philosophical Transactions within the last three years."
		Astronomy	"For his paper on nebulae and clusters of stars, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833."
1837		Physics	"For his researches connected with the theory of the tides, communicated to the Royal Society and published in its Transactions within the last three years."
1838		Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...	"For his papers entitled Researches in the Integral Calculus, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1836 and 1837."
		Chemistry	"For his paper entitled "Inquiries respecting the Constiitution of salts, of oxalates, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates and chlorides," published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1836."
1839		Mathematics	"For his paper on the theory of the astronomical refractions published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1838. Part II."
		Embryology Embryology Embryology is a science which is about the development of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to the fetus stage...	"For his papers on embryology, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1838 and 1839."
1840		Physiology Physiology Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...	"For his paper entitled Contributions to the physiology of vision, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1838."
		Astronomy	"For his paper entitled On the chemical action of the rays of the solar spectrum on preparations of silver, and other substances, both metallic and non-metallic, and on some photogenic processes, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1840."
1841		Engineering Engineering Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...	"For his paper entitled Experimental researches on the strength of pillars of cast iron, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1840."
		Chemistry	"For his memoir entitled the Chemical History of archil and litmus, published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1840."
1842		Chemistry	"For his letters on the electrolysis of secondary compounds and on voltaic combinations published in the Transactions for 1840 and 1842."
		Anatomy	"For his paper on the structure and use of the Malpighian bodies Renal corpuscle In the kidney, a renal corpuscle is the initial blood-filtering component of a nephron. It consists of two structures: a glomerulus and a Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by...  of the kidney, with observations on the circulation through that gland, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the present year."
1843		Physics	"For his paper entitled, an account of several new instruments and processes for determining the constants of a voltaic circuit, printed in the Philosophical Transactions for the present year."
		Physics	"For his researches on the law of extinction of the solar rays in passing through the atmosphere, contained in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1842."
1844		Mathematics	"For his paper on a general method in analysis, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the present year."
		Chemistry	" For his paper on the thermal changes accompanying basic substitutions, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the present year."
1845		Astronomy	"For his paper on the laws of the tides on the coast of Ireland, as inferred from an extensive series of observations made in connection with the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, published in the Philosophical Transactions for the present year."
		Medicine Medicine Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....	"For his paper entitled On the nerves of the uterus, which has been ordered for publication in the Philosophical Transactions."
1846		Physics	"For his experimental researches in electricity, twentieth and twenty first series, on new magnetic actions, and on the magnetic conditions of all matter, inserted in the Philosophical Transactions part I. for 1845."
		Biology	"For his paper entitled A description of certain Belemnites preserved with a great proportion of their soft parts in the Oxford clay at Christian-Malford, Wilts, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1844."
1847		Chemistry	"For his papers published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1845, on the artificial formation of a vegeto-alkali, and on benzoline, published in the same volume of the Transactions"
		Physics	"For his papers published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1845 and 1847, on the gas voltaic battery, and on certain phenomena of voltaic ignition"
1848		Mathematics	"For his paper on the solution of linear differential equations, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1848."
		Mathematics	"For his paper on the proper motion of the Solar System, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1847"
1849		Astronomy	"For his contributions to terrestrial magnetism, published in the Philosophical Transactions parts VII and VIII, and his memoir on the diurnal variation of the magnetic declination at Saint Helena, part I."
		Geology	"For his paper on the Iguanodon Iguanodon Iguanodon is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that lived roughly halfway between the first of the swift bipedal hypsilophodontids and the ornithopods' culmination in the duck-billed dinosaurs... , published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1848, being a continuation of a series of papers by him on the same fossil reptile, by which he has rendered eminent services to geology."
1850		Chemistry	"For his investigations on the chemical nature of wax, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1848 and 1849."
		Chemistry	"For his paper on the motion of gases, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1849."
1851		Astronomy	"For his observations on the nebulae published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1850."
		Entomology Entomology Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology...	"For his paper on the impregnation of the ovum in the amphibia (first series), published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1851."
1852		Physics	"For his paper on the mechanical equivalent of heat, printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850."
		Biology	"For his papers on the anatomy and the affinities of the family of the Medusae, printed in the Philosophical Transactions."
1853		Natural history Natural history Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study...	"For his work entitled Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America, and his work, Fossil Circhipeda of Great Britain, Section Lepadidae, Monograph of the Circhipeda."
		Physics	"For his paper on diamagnetism and magne-crystallic action, published in the Philosophical Magazine in 1851. (the award of this medal was declined by Dr Tyndall)"
1854		Chemistry	"For his researches in organic chemistry published in the Transactions of the Royal and Chemical Societies."
		Botany	"For his researches in various branches of science, especially in botany, as naturalist of the Antarctic expedition of Sir James Ross, and in an expedition to the eastern part of the Himalayan range; of which researches part has been published in works entitled The Antarctic Flora, and the Flora of New Zealand, and in various other communications, and part is now in course of publication."
1855		Entomology	"For his various monographs and papers on entomology."
		Astronomy	"For the discovery of ten planetoids, the computation of their orbits, and various other astronomical discoveries."
1856		Natural history	"For his contributions to natural history and physical geography."
		Physics	"For his various chemical researches relating to electricity, to the motive power of heat, and to other subjects."
1857		Chemistry	"For the isolation of the organic radicals of the alcohols, and for his researches on the metallic derivatives of alcohol."
		Botany	"For his numerous researches and works on all branches of scientific botany, and especially for his vegetable kingdom, and his genera & species of Orchideae."
1858		Biology	"For his various researches on the anatomy of the mollusca."
		Astronomy	"For his various astronomical discoveries and researches."
1859		Mathematics	"For his mathematical papers published in the Philosophical Transactions, and in various English and foreign journals."
		Botany	"For his important contributions to the advancement of systematic and descriptive botany."
1860		Neurophysiology Neurophysiology Neurophysiology is a part of physiology. Neurophysiology is the study of nervous system function...	"For his investigations into the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, and for the introduction of a valuable method of conducting such investigations."
		Structural engineering Structural engineering Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and design of structures that support or resist loads. Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty within civil engineering, but it can also be studied in its own right....	"For his various experimental inquiries on the properties of the materials employed in mechanical construction, contained in the Philosophical transactions, and in the publications of other scientific societies."
1861		Mathematics	"For his various memoirs and researches in mathematical science."
		Physiology	"For his researches on the Foraminifera Foraminifera The Foraminifera , or forams for short, are a large group of amoeboid protists which are among the commonest plankton species. They have reticulating pseudopods, fine strands of cytoplasm that branch and merge to form a dynamic net... , contained in four memoirs in the Philosophical Transactions, his investigations into the structure of shell, his observations on the embryonic development of Purpura, and his various other writings in physiology and comparative anatomy"
1862		Chemistry	"For his researches on the compound ethers, and his subsequent communications in organic chemistry."
		Astronomy	"For the Armagh catalogue of 5345 stars, deduced from observations made at the Armagh Observatory Armagh Observatory Armagh Observatory is a modern astronomical research institute with a rich heritage, based in Armagh, Northern Ireland. Around 25 astronomers are actively studying stellar astrophysics, the Sun, Solar System astronomy, and the Earth's climate.... , from the years 1820 up to 1854; for his papers on the construction of astronomical instruments in the memoirs of the Astronomical Society, and his paper on electromagnets in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy."
1863		Physics	"For his researches on the voltaic battery and current, and on the discharge of electricity through attenuated media."
		Botany	"For his researches in cryptogamic botany, especially mycology."
1864		Anatomy	"For his researches on the intimate structure of the spinal cord and brain, and on the development of the spinal cord, published in five memoirs in the Philosophical Transactions and in other writings."
		Astronomy	"For his observations on the total eclipse of the Sun of 1860, and for his improvements in astronomical photography."
1865		Mathematics	"For his papers in the Philosophical Transactions and elsewhere, on the magnetism of ships."
		Geology	"For his numerous & valuable contributions to geological science and more especially for his papers published in the Philosophical Transactions on the general question of the excavation of river valleys, and on the superficial deposits in France and England in which the works of man are associated with the remains of extinct animals."
1866		Astronomy	"For his researches on the spectra of some of the chemical elements and on the spectra of certain of the heavenly bodies; and especially for his researches on the spectra of the nebulae, published in the Philosophical Transactions."
		Anatomy	"For his researches in comparative osteology, and more especially on the anatomy of the skull, as contained in papers published in the Transactions of the Zoological Society and the Philosophical Transactions."
1867	and Joseph Henry Gilbert Joseph Henry Gilbert Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert was an English chemist, noteworthy for his long career spent improving the methods of practical agriculture. He was a fellow of the Royal Society.-Life:...	Chemistry	"For their researches in agricultural chemistry."
		Geology	"For his geological researches in Canada, and the construction of a geological map of that colony."
1868		Zoology Zoology Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...	"For his labours in practical and theoretical zoology."
		Mathematics	"For his researches in analytical geometry and the theory of surfaces, published in the Philosophical Transactions, the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, and the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics."
1869		Chemistry	"For his researches on the electrical and other physical properties of metals and their alloys."
		Astronomy	"For his measurement of an arc of the meridian at the Cape of Good Hope."
1870		Paleontology Paleontology Paleontology "old, ancient", ὄν, ὀντ- "being, creature", and λόγος "speech, thought") is the study of prehistoric life. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments...	"For his works on the recent and fossil Brachiopoda, more especially his series of monographs in the publications of the Palaeontographical Society."
		Mineralogy Mineralogy Mineralogy is the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.-History:Early writing...	"For his researches and writings on mineralogy and crystallography, and his scientific labours in the restoration of the National Standard of Weight."
1871		Zoology	"For his researches in zoology, physiology, and comparative anatomy."
		Chemistry	"For his researches on the lichens & their proximate constituents and derivatives, including Erythrite; and for his researches on the action of charcoal in purifying air."
1872		Zoology	"For his long continued and valuable researches in zoology, and more especially for his inquiries into the natural history of the Spongiadae."
		Chemistry	"For his investigations on the organic bases of Dippells animal oil; on codeine; on the crystallized constituents of opium; on piperin and on papaverin; and for his researches in physiological and animal chemistry."
1873		Zoology	"For his researches in zoology, and especially for his memoirs on the structure, development, and physiology of the gymnoblastic hydroids."
		Chemistry	"For his various chemical investigations, especially fot those on the chemical action of light, and upon the element Vanadium and its combinations."
1874		Geology	"For his researches on Slaty cleavage and on the minute structure of minerals and rocks; for the construction of the microspectroscope, and for his researches on colouring matters."
		Paleontology	"For his contributions to zoology & palaeontology, & especially for his investigations into the structure of the fossil plants of the coal measures."
1875		Geology	"For his long & important services in the science of geology, first as Professor of Geology, Trin. Col. Dub. And Director of the Geol. Survey of Ireland & chiefly for the great work which he has long conducted as superintendent of the Geol. Survey of India, also for the series of volumes of geological reports and memoirs, including the Palaeontographica Indica published under his direction."
		Chemistry	"For his various chemical and physical researches, more especially for his discovery of thallium, his investigation of its compounds and determination of its atomic weight; and for his discovery of the repulsion referable to radiation."
1876		Zoology	"For his successful direction of the scientific investigations carried on by HMS Challenger."
		Hydrodynamics	"For his researches both theoretical and experimental on the behaviour of ships, their oscillations, their resistance, & propulsion."
1877		Chemistry	"For his physico-chemical researches on gun cotton & explosive agents."
		Natural History	"For his numerous researches & writings on the tertiary plants of Europe, of the North Atlantic, North Asia, and North America, and for his able generalizations respecting their affinities, and their geological & climatic relations."
1878		Zoology	"For his numerous & valuable contributions to the zoology & anatomy of fishes & reptiles."
		Meteorology	"For his investigations during thirty five years in magnetism and meteorology & for his improvements in methods of observation."
1879		Geology	"For his long continued & successful labours in geology and physical geography."
		Chemistry	"For his synthetical & other researches in organic chemistry."
1880		Physics	"For his researches into the action of explosives; his invention of the chronoscope; and other mathematical & physical inquiries."
		Surgery Surgery Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance.An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical...	"For his contributions on various physiological & biological subjects published in the Philosophical Transactions & Proceedings of the Royal Society & elsewhere; and for his labours practical and theoretical, on questions relating to the antiseptic system of treatment in surgery."
1881		Mathematics	"For his various mathematical & physical papers, more especially for his researches in chemical optics, & his invention of the new and delicate analyser by which they were carried out."
		Biology	"For his numerous and important contributions to animal morphology; and more especially for his investigations respecting the origin of the urogenital organs and the cerebrospinal nerves of the Vertebrata; and for his work on the development of the Elasmobranch fishes."
1882		Physics	"For his various papers in mathematical and experimental physics."
		Biology	"For his valuable contributions to the morphology and classification of the Mammalia and to anthropology."
1883		Mathematics	"For his researches in pure mathematics."
		Physiology	"For the eminent services which he has rendered to physiology and pathology, especially for his investigation of the relations of micro-organisms to disease, and his researches on the electric phenomena of plants."
1884		Mathematics	"For his mathematical investigations on the rigidity of the Earth, and on tides."
		Botany	"For his investigations in the classification of plants, and for the great services which he has rendered to taxonomic botany."
1885		Electrical engineering Electrical engineering Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical...	"For his electric and magnetic researches, and his invention of the microphone & the induction balance."
		Zoology	"For his discoveries concerning the embryology and morphology of the mollusca and his services to embryology & animal morphology in general."
1886		Physics	"For his various mathematical and physical researches."
		Biology	"For his statistical inquiries into biological phenomena."
1887		Geodesy Geodesy Geodesy , also named geodetics, a branch of earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space. Geodesists also study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal...	"For his comparison of standards of length and determination of the figure of the Earth."
		Natural history	"For his numerous researches in animal morphology, and especially his investigations."
1888		Physics	"For his investigations in mathematical & experimental physics, and on the application of scientific theory to engineering."
		Geography Geography Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...	"For his long services in Australian exploration and for his investigations of the flora of the Australian continent."
1889		Chemistry	"For his researches on fluorine compounds, and his determination of the atomic weights of titanium and gold."
		Physiology	"For his researches in cardiac physiology and his important discoveries in the anatomy and physiology of the sympathetic nervous system."
1890		Physics	"For his researches in magnetism and electricity."
		Neurology Neurology Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue,...	"For his researches on the localisation of cerebral functions."
1891		Physics	"For his researches on liquid films, and his contributions to our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism."
		Geology	"For his researches among the older rocks of Britain."
1892		Astronomy	"For his work on photometry and stellar parallax."
		Physiology	"For his work on secreting glands, and on the nervous system."
1893		Botany	"For his researches into the life-history of fungi and schizomycetes."
		Botany	"For his spectroscopic inquiries, and his researches on disruptive discharge through gases and on terrestrial magnetism."
1894		Physics	"For his contributions to mathematical and experimental physics especially to electrical theory."
		Physiology	"For his investigations relating to the physiology of the nervous system, and of the thyroid gland, and to their applications to the treatment of disease."
1895		Oceanography Oceanography Oceanography , also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean...	"For his services to biological science and oceanography in connection with the "Challenger" reports, and for his original contributions to the same."
		Physics	"For his investigations on magnetic induction in iron and other metals.
1896		Geology	"For his many original contributions to geology especially those upon the Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe."
		Physics	"For his invention of Quartz Fibres and and [sic] investigation of their properties, his improvement of the radio-micrometer and investigations with it, for developments in the art of instantaneous photography, and for his determination of the value of the constant of attraction."
1897		Geology	"For his researches in geographical, meteorological, and botanical science."
		Mathematics	"For his contributions to the progress of pure mathematics, and especially for his work in differential equations and the theory of functions."
1898		Physics	"For his researches on the optical effect of electrical stress and on the reflection of light at the surface of a magnetised body."
		Botany	"For his researches on the protoplasmic connection of the cells of vegetable tissues and on the minute histology of plants."
1899		Marine biology Marine biology Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather...	"For his important monographs on British marine zoology and on the fishing industries."
		Physics	"For his contributions to physical science, especially in the domains of optics and electricity."
1900		Ornithology Ornithology Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds...	"For his eminent contributions to the science of ornithology and the geographical distribution of animals."
		Mathematics	"For the number and range of his contributions to mathematical science"
1901		Electrical engineering	"For his contributions to electrical science."
		Geology	"For his work in connection with the geographical distribution of animals"
1902		Neurology	"For his researches into the functions and minute structure of the Central Nervous System, especially with regard to the motor and sensory functions of the cortex of the brain."
		Applied mathematics Applied mathematics Applied mathematics is a branch of mathematics that concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry. Thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge...	"For his investigations in mathematical physics."
1903		Astronomy	"For his researches in solar and stellar parallax, and his energetic direction of the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope."
		Chemistry	"For his work on the chemistry of the carbohydrates and on the assimilation of carbonic acid by green plants."
1904		Microbiology Microbiology Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...	"For his valuable researches in the pathology of Malta fever, nagana, and sleeping sickness, and especially for his discoveries as regards the exact causes of these diseases."
		Mathematics	"For his researches in mathematics, particularly in the theory of groups."
1905		Neurophysiology	"For his researches on the Central Nervous System especially in relation to reflex action."
		Physics	" For his researches in physical science, especially in connection with the constant of gravitation and the theories of electrodynamics and radiation."
1906		Mathematics	"For his contributions to mathematics, especially the elliptic functions and their applications."
		Botany	"For his investigations and discoveries in connection with the structure and relationship of fossil plants."
1907		Mathematics	"On the ground of his investigations in mathematics."
		Natural history	"On the ground of his discoveries relating to fossil fishes."
1908		Neurology	"On the ground of his researches on the relations between the visceral & somatic nerves and on the functions of the different nerves."
		Geology	"On the ground of his work in seismology."
1909		Mathematics	"On the ground of his researches in the theory of elasticity and cognate subjects."
		Medicine	"On the ground of his researches in connection with malaria."
1910		Botany	"On the ground of his treatise on the origin of a land flora."
		Geology	"On the ground of researches in physics and geology."
1911		Mathematics	"On the ground of his work in mathematics and physics."
		Physiology	"On the ground of his researches in physiology."
1912		Anatomy	no rationale given
		Physics	"On the ground of his researches in mathematical physics."
1913		Physiology	"On the ground of his contributions to the advancement of physiology."
		Chemistry	"On the ground of his eminence in physical chemistry, especially in connexion with explosions in gases."
1914		Astronomy	"For investigations in astronomy, chiefly in the lunar theory."
		Geology	"For researches in palaeontology."
1915		Mathematics	"On the ground of his numerous and important contributions to mathematical and physical science."
		Ethnology Ethnology Ethnology is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.-Scientific discipline:Compared to ethnography, the study of single groups through direct...	"On the ground of his important contributions to ethnography and ethnology."
1916		Mathematics	"For his contributions to mathematical physics."
		Physiology	"For his distinguished services to chemical physiology, more especially in reference to the chemical changes in respiration."
1917		Palaeontology	"On the ground of his researches in vertebrate palaeontology."
		Meteorology	"On the ground of his work on cloudy condensations."
1918		Astronomy	"For his distinguished researches in physical astronomy and spectroscopy."
		Biochemistry	"On the ground of his researches in chemical physiology."
1919		Mathematics	"On the ground of his researches in applied mathematics."
		Botany	"On the ground of his notable work on plant and animal cytology."
1920		Mathematics	"On the ground of his researches in pure mathematics."
		Genetics Genetics Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....	"On the ground of his contributions to biological science, and especially his studies in genetics."
1921		Astronomy	"For his researches on the distribution and movement of the stars."
		Botany	"For his researches on the gaseous exchange in plants & on the operation of limiting factors."
1922		Meteorology	"For his researches on condensation nuclei and atmospheric electricity."
		Physiology	"For his researches in physiology and especially for his work in connection with respiration."
1923		Physiology	"For his researches on animal metabolism"
		Meteorology	"For his researches in meteorological science"
1924		Engineering	"For his application of scientific principles to engineering problems."
		Pharmacology Pharmacology Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function...	"For his researches in pharmacology and physiology."
1925		Botany	"For his researches on the palaeobotany of Gondwanaland."
		Organic chemistry Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...	"For his work on the constitution of the alkaloids carried out during the past few years."
1926		Physiology	"For his distinguished work on the physical and chemical aspects of muscular contraction."
		Biochemistry	"For his pioneer work on colloidal chemistry and the theory of lubrication."
1927		Physics	" For his researches in spectroscopy and atomic physics."
		Cardiology Cardiology Cardiology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart . The field includes diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease and electrophysiology...	"For his researches on the vascular system, following upon his earlier work on the mammalian heart-beat."
1928		Astrophysics	"For his contributions to astrophysics."
		Palaeontology	"For his discoveries which have shed new light on the problem of the origin of mammals."
1929		Mathematics	"For his work on mathematical analysis and the theory of prime numbers."
		Pathology	"For his contributions to the science of immunology."
1930		Geology	"For his pioneer work in the accurate zoning of the palaeozoic rocks."
		Physics	"For his work on thermionics and spectroscopy."
1931		Physics	"For his distinguished work in experimental physics."
		Botany	"For his work on the anatomy and morphology of the fern-like fossils of the Old Red Sandstone."
1932		Pharmacology	"For his important researches on dietary factors, particularly in connexion with rickets."
		Chemistry	"For his work in many branches of organic chemistry, especially on the structure of plant products and their phytochemical synthesis."
1933		Physics	"For his mathematical work in physics, geophysics and aerodynamics."
		Virology Virology Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy...	"For his work on diseases due to viruses, including that on the cause and prevention of distemper in dogs."
1934		Electrophysiology Electrophysiology Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage change or electric current on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart...	"For his work on the physiology of nerve and its application to the problems of sensation."
		Geophysics	"For his researches in the kinetic theory of gases, in terrestrial magnetism and in the phenomena of the upper atmosphere."
1935		Petrology Petrology Petrology is the branch of geology that studies rocks, and the conditions in which rocks form....	"In recognition of his distinguished work and influence as a petrologist."
		Physics	"For his researches in mathematical physics, especially in the quantum mechanics of the electron and in optics."
1936		Zoology	"For his work on the morphology of the excretory organs of the invertebrate and for his work on the comparative anatomy and embryology of the vertebrata."
		Physics	"For his work on statistical mechanics and allied departments of modern mathematical physics."
1937		Biology	"In recognition of his researches on the general biology and sexuality of the fungi."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished work on valency and on molecular structure."
1938		Physics	"For his discovery of the isotopes of non-radioactive elements."
		Statistics Statistics Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments....	"For his important contributions to the theory and practice of statistical methods."
1939		Entomology	"For his contributions to biochemistry and entomology; in particular for his demonstration of the part played by cytochrome in the oxidation-reduction mechanisms of the living cell; and for his studies of the higher diptera."
		Physics	"For the leading part he had taken in the development of the new quantum mechanics."
1940		Physiology	"For his contributions to the physiology of animal reproduction."
		Physics	"For his studies of cosmic rays and the showers of particles which they produce, for his share in the discovery of the positive electron, for his work on mesons and many other experimental achievements."
1941		Pathology	"For his discovery of the nature of the carcinogenic substances in coal tar and for his investigations on production of cancer by synthetic substances."
		Astrophysics Astrophysics Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior...	"For his researches on the atmospheres of the earth and the sun, on the internal constitution of the stars, and on the theory of relativity."
1942		Bacteriology Bacteriology Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species...	"For his outstanding work on experimental epidemiology and immunology."
		Chemistry	"For his fundamental contributions to organic chemistry, particularly to the constitution of the sugars and the structure of complex polysaccharides."
1943		Geology	"For his distinguished contributions to the knowledge of mountain structure and his studies on the tectonics of vulcanism."
		Astronomy	"For his determination of the solar parallax and of other fundamental astronomical constants."
1944		Chemistry	"For his work in the analysis and synthesis of thyroxine, and in immunological chemistry."
		Meteorology	"For his fundamental contributions to meteorology."
1945		Botany	"For his notable contributions to plant ecology and to the study of the British flora generally."
		Crystallography Crystallography Crystallography is the experimental science of the arrangement of atoms in solids. The word "crystallography" derives from the Greek words crystallon = cold drop / frozen drop, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and grapho = write.Before the development of...	"For his work on the structure of proteins and other substances by X-ray methods and for the solution of many other problems requiring a physical approach."
1946		Biology	"For his distinguished researches in cytology and genetics."
		Physics	"For his distinguished researches in the sciences of X-ray structure analysis and X-ray spectroscopy."
1947		Virology	"For his distinguished work on bacteriophages, viruses and immunity; and for his contributions to the study of infectious disease as an ecological phenomenon."
		Chemistry	"For his distinguished work on the mechanism of chemical reactions from the simplest gas phase processes to the complexities of cell division."
1948		Zoology	"For his distinguished researches in cytology, ciliary movement, and particularly his anatomical and experimental studies of animal posture and locomotion."
		Geophysics	"For his distinguished work in geophysics and his important contributions to the astronomy of the solar system.
1949		Biochemistry	"For his distinguished biochemical researches, in particular his investigations of (i) the biochemical role of vitamin B1 in tissue metabolism; and (ii) the mechanism of the toxic action of lewisite and other arsenical compounds."
		Physics	"For his distinguished contributions to many branches of atomic physics, and especially for his work in establishing the wave properties of the electron."
1950		Zoology	"For his contributions to the comparative physiology of the Invertebrata, particularly his work on nerve conduction in Crustacea and Actinozoa."
		Physics	"For his work on the ele [sic] transmission of electromagnetic waves round the earth and for his investigations of the ionic state of the upper atmosphere."
1951		Pharmacology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to pathology by his studies of the functions of mucin and by his work on penicillin and other antibiotics."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to organic chemistry, notably in the field of vitamin A and polyene synthesis."
1952		Experimental psychology Experimental psychology Experimental psychology is a methodological approach, rather than a subject, and encompasses varied fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists have traditionally conducted research, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception,...	"In recognition of his creation of an experimental school of psychology which has established under his leadership an outstanding position recognized internationally as without superior."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his extensive theoretical and practical studies of the mechanism of organic chemical reactions and the factors influencing them; and for his analysis of the structure of benzene."
1953		Microbiology	"In recognition of his classical researches on growth factors for bacteria and for laying the foundation of work leading to a rational approach to chemotherapy."
		Physics	"In recognition of his eminent work in the field of quantum theory and particularly in the theory of metals."
1954		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his discovery of two key reactions in animal metabolism and for his distinguished contributions to the knowledge of cell energetics."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished work on nuclear and atomic physics."
1955		Entomology	"In recognition of his distinguished experimental contributions of outstanding value to many aspects of insect physiology."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished work in organic chemistry."
1956		Geology	"In recognition of his distinguished studies in the Palaeozoic rocks, particularly in Wales, his work on sediments, his palaeontological researches and the application of geological knowledge to practical problems."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of her distinguished work in the elucidation of structures of penicillin, vitamin B12 and other important compounds by the methods of X-ray crystallography."
1957		Botany	"In recognition of his distinguished studies in plant physiology."
		Mathematics	"In recognition of his distinguished work on algebraic geometry."
1958		Physiology	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the mechanism of excitation and conduction in nerve and muscle."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to physics, and particularly for his experimental and theoretical studies of collision phenomena in gases."
1959		Physiology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions in the field of tissue transplantation immunity and acquired tolerance."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the theoretical foundations of high energy and nuclear physics."
1960		Pathology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions in the field of cellular pathology"
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to radio astronomy."
1961		Physiology	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to neuroanatomy and primate morphology, which he has combined to provide new knowledge of human evolution."
		Physics	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the development of the photographic emulsion technique in the investigation of cosmic rays and the outstanding results derived therefrom on the elementary particles in cosmic radiation."
1962		Neurophysiology	"In recognition of his distinguished investigations of the function of the spinal cord, particularly of the mechanisms of excitation and inhibition."
		Astrophysics	"In recognition of his distinguished researches in mathematical physics, particularly those related to the stability of convective motions in fluids with and without magnetic fields."
1963		Geology	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the understanding of the processes of rock metamorphism and the origins of granite."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished work in biochemistry of plants, especially for his contributions to knowledge of photosynthesis."
1964		Medicine	"In recognition of his important contribution to our understanding of the passage of protein from maternal to foetal circulations."
		Aeroacoustics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to knowledge of the flow of compressible gases, and the mathematical theory of distributions."
1965		Engineering	"In recognition of his distinguished work in many aspects of engineering, particularly for his design studies of large structures such as those exemplified in the radio telescopes at Jodrell Bank and Goonhilly Downs."
		Crystallography	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the complete structural analysis of a protein molecule (myoglobin), particularly the biological aspects of this study."
		Astronomy	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to astronomy, particularly for his work on the dynamical stability of galaxies."
1966		Engineering	"In recognition of his pioneering invention, and major contributions to the subsequent development of hovercraft."
		Statistical biology	"In recognition of his profound and far-reaching contributions to the statistical methods of experimental biology."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished studies in the ionosphere and on the propagation of radio waves."
1967		Biology	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the genetics and evolution of crop-plants with particular reference to cotton."
		Neurophysiology	"In recognition of his outstanding researches correlating neural structure with function."
		Petrology	"In recognition of his many distinguished contributions in all branches of retrology."
1968		Engineering	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to civil engineering, and in particular to the design and construction of long-span suspension bridges."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to knowledge of the chemistry of blood-group substances, with special reference to genetical as well as immunological considerations."
		Mathematics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to algebraic geometry and to the study of differential equations by the methods of algebraic topology."
1969		Electrical engineering	"In recognition of his distinguished work in the wartime development of radar and latterly for the design and development of a highly successful scanning electron microscope."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his pioneer work on the sequence of amino acids in proteins and of nucleotides of ribonucleic acids."
		Oceanography	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to physical oceanography and for his leadership as director of the National Institute of Oceanography."
1970		Engineering	"In recognition of his fundamental and applied work on the plastic behaviour and design of framed structures which is now being used throughout the world."
		Physiology	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the visual pigments in the living eye and on chemical and nervous adaptation in the retina."
		Geology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to pure and applied geology, and especially in the field of metallic ore deposits."
1971		Geology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to oil and gas exploration and the geology of oil and gas fields."
		Biology	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the molecular biology and structure of proteins."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished experimental researches in atomic and molecular spectroscopy and its applications in chemistry, physics and astronomy."
1972		Nuclear physics Nuclear physics Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the science and technology of heavy water reactors for power generation."
		Biology	"In recognition of his elucidation of the structure of DNA and his continuing contribution to molecular biology."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to organic chemistry, especially his theories on the conformation of organic molecules and his syntheses of natural products."
1973		Biology	"In recognition of his outstanding work on the isolation, characterization and development of the cephalosporin group of antibiotics."
		Biology	"In recognition of his penetrating investigations on the structure of immunoglobulins."
		Astronomy	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to radioastronomy."
1974		Biology	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to molecular biology concerning the nature of the genetic code and its expression during development."
		Engineering	"In recognition of his many contributions to aeronautical engineering, particularly in the realization of supersonic aircraft."
		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to theoretical physics and cosmology."
1975		Engineering	"In recognition of the originality of his ideas and the determination with which he has pursued them."
		Biology	"In recognition of his solution of the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme and his outstanding contributions to the techniques of x-ray crystallography."
		Geophysics	"In recognition of his distinction as a world leader in geophysics, especially the generation of the earths magnetic field, the origin of the oceans and continental drift."
1976		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to emission and infra-red spectroscopy and his origination of the atomic absorption method of quantitative analysis."
		Medicine	"In recognition of his distinguished research in the field of immunology, especially as regards the recirculation and immunological role of lymphocytes"
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his fundamental contribution to the stereochemical unravelling of the biosynthesis of squalene and cholesterol from acetate and mevalonate."
1977		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the design and operation of high-energy particle accelerators."
		Biology	"In recognition of his distinguished research on the structure of muscle and on the molecular mechanisms of contraction."
		Materials science Materials science Materials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It incorporates...	"In recognition of his distinguished studies of defects in crystals and especially of his elucidation of the process of work hardening."
1978		Engineering	"In recognition of his outstanding individual and continuing contribution to the development of computer hardware in the United Kingdom over the last thirty years."
		Biology	"In recognition of his distinguished studies of the biological activity of peptide hormones in relation to their structure."
		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the physics of elementary particles with special reference to the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions."
1979		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the design and development of the X-ray microscope, the scanning electron microprobe analyser, the high voltage and ultrahigh resolution (2.5A) electron microscopes and their applications in many disciplines."
		Biology	"In recognition of his distinguished work on narcotics leading to the discovery in 1975 of the enkephalins."
		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding original contributions to the theory of crystal growth, dislocations, phase transformations and polymers, with wide applications in physics, chemistry and geology."
1980		Astronomy	"In recognition of his conception of the basic principles of the Interscan aircraft instrument landing system and the guidance of its development to a successful conclusion."
		Medicine	"In recognition of his development of cell fusion for the study of somatic-cell genetics and differentiation including the genetic control of malignancy."
		Physics	"In recognition of his highly original research in nuclear physics and of his outstanding contributions on giant resonances, radiative widths, second-class beta decay and the fundamental symmetries of nuclear interactions and also on instrumentation."
1981		Genetics	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to understanding the genetics of wheat and the development of new methods of producing improved varieties."
		Neuroscience	"In recognition of her important contributions to synaptic biochemistry and pharmacology which are fundamental to modern neuropharmacology."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to preparative inorganic chemistry and in particular to the synthesis and application of organometallic compounds."
1982		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his fundamental contribution to understanding the structure and genetic control of immunoglobulins; his hybridoma technique for producing monoclonal antibodies has revolutionized the potential practical applications of immunology."
		Engineering	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to engineering thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, and particularly the internal aerodynamics of turbomachines."
		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to particle physics, particularly in relation to the properties of strange particles."
1983		Physics	"In recognition of his development of the techniques of generating ultra-short light pulses from lasers, and of picosecond streak cameras."
		Biology	"In recognition of his contributions to elucidating the nature of chemical synaptic transmission in nervous systems and the regulating effects of hormones in peripheral systems."
		Mathematics	"In recognition of his distinguished researches on queuing theory, on regenerative phenomena, and on mathematical genetics."
1984		Electrical engineering	"In recognition of his many distinguished contributions to microwave engineering, both theoretical and experimental, and in particular for research on microwave antennae."
		Genetics	"In recognition of her distinguished contributions to the discovery of X-chromosome inactivation as a mechanism of gene dosage compensation."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the elucidation of the pathway for the biosynthesis of complex natural products."
1985		Engineering	"For his great contribution to the development of finite element analysis and its application to the solution of engineering problems."
		Biology	"For his outstanding contributions to the techniques of nuclear transplantation and the use of the amphibian egg for investigations on replication, transcription and translation of genes."
		Physics	"For his fundamental contributions to the theory of gravitational collapse and to other geometric aspects of theoretical physics."
1986		Electrical engineering	"In recognition of his outstanding researches on acoustic microscopy leading to wholly new techniques and substantial improvements in resolution of acoustic microscopes."
		Physiology	"In recognition of his pioneering use of statistical and epidemiological techniques to evaluate environmental factors in disease, notably that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease and bronchitis."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his many contributions, both theoretical and instrumental, to nuclear magnetic resonance."
1987		Pharmacology	"In recognition of his major contributions to the physiology, pathology and pharmacology of platelets and of his widely used methods for studying platelet function in haemostasis and thrombosis."
		Marine biology	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the physiology of marine animals, to marine biology generally, and his leadership of U.K. marine science."
		Astronomy	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to radio- and optical-astronomy."
1988		Engineering	"In recognition of his distinguished research, particularly on microwaves and waveguides, and of his lasting influence as the founder of an unusually productive research school."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of her fundamental contributions towards an understanding of the biochemical genetics of carbohydrate antigens on cell surfaces and in secreted glycoproteins."
		Mathematics	"In recognition of his distinguished work on the theory of turbulence and turbulent diffusion, and the theory of microhydrodynamics and colloidal suspensions."
1989		Pharmacology	"In recognition of his development of techniques to detect and monitor substances in the blood that regulate the circulation, and their application to the treatment of vascular and ischaemic conditions."
		Medicine	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the clinical and molecular basis of the thalassaemias, and fundamental contributions to the unravelling of their heterogeneity."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the electromagnetic radiation emitted from chemical charges, leading to the basis of the chemical laser process."
1990		Engineering	"In recognition of his pioneering development of the finite element method as a general procedure of solving problems of engineering physics and for demonstrating its success in applications to stress analysis, fluid mechanics, electromagnetics and many other situations."
		Developmental biology Developmental biology Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...	"In recognition of her distinguished research on mammalian embryology, particularly for providing much of the scientific basis for in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer, and for analysing sex determination in mammals."
		Physics	"In recognition of his deep and innovatory researches in classical and quantum physics, especially the discovery of the "Berry phase"."
1991		Physics	"In recognition of his distinguished research on cloud physics and, as Director-General of the Meteorological Office, his broadening and strengthening of research in meteorology in the UK."
		Biology	"In recognition of his discovery that inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate functions as a second messenger to mobilize calcium."
		Geophysics	"In recognition of his seminal role in developing a quantitative understanding of a wide range of geophysical and geological processes, including plate tectonics, mantle convection, continental deformation and melt segregation."
1992		Physics	"for his seminal contributions to the basic study of friction and wear between solids, of considerable relevance to the design of machines."
		Medicine	"distinguished for the isolation of the Epstein-Barr virus which is closely associated with Burkitts lymphoma."
		Mathematics	"distinguished for his work which has revolutionized our understanding of four-dimensional geometry."
1993		Applied mathematics	"for his outstanding contribution to the theoretical mechanics of solids, and especially the plasticity of solids."
		Neuroscience	"for his outstanding and original contributions to electrophysiological, computational and psychophysical study of visual sensation and perception."
		Physics	"In recognition of his contributions to solid state theory, in particular the bonding and structure of solids."
1994		Pharmacology	"for his contributions to pharmacology and the discovery of basic mechanisms of signal transmission relevant to drug action."
		Aeronautics	"for his many fundamental and analytical contributions to our knowledge of advanced aeronautical structures, and more recently to the biological sciences."
		Physics	"his many new discoveries in the understanding of liquid crystals, for a synthesis of the subject of his seminal book, "The invention of discotic liquid crystals", and for elucidating their remarkable properties."
1995		Medicine	"In recognition of his discovery of colony stimulating factors which regulate the growth and differentiation of normal hematopoietic and leukemic cells."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his work on the control of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells by his discovery of the identity and function of genes that regulate the key control points in the process of cell proliferation."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his contributions in clearly presenting the role of inorganic elements in biological systems."
1996		Zoology	"In recognition of his contributions to the field of animal behaviour and the dominant influence it achieved on the emerging field of ethology."
		Botany	"In recognition of his pioneering work in plant reproductive biology, in particular the areas of taxonomy and ecology, whole plant physiology, development of sub-cellular systems in somatic and reproductive cells, pollen/stigma interactions and acto/myosin transport systems within the pollen tube."
		Mathematics	"In recognition of his achievements in number theory, in particular Fermats Last Theorem and his achievements in algebraic number theory particularly the celebrated main conjecture on cyclotomic fields."
1997		Chemistry	"In recognition of his contribution to our understanding of the way in which chemicals move from the living biosphere to the fossil geosphere, in particular the origin, genesis, maturation and migration of oil which has had great repercussions on the petroleum industry."
		Biology	"In recognition of his theoretical contributions to evolutionary biology, combining mathematics and biology to develop a sound understanding in such fields as population dynamics, paleobiology, ethology, behavioural ecology, bacteriology and genetics."
		Physics	"In recognition of his contributions to experimental particle physics, in particular the elucidation of the structure of the nucleon on the basis of observations of neutrino interactions, the quark substructure of the nucleon, and production of the first quantitative evidence for the validity of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)."
1998		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his development of the method of transferring spatial patterns of DNA fragments from the electrophoretic separation medium to membranes on which the hybridisation could occur known as southern blotting, now a fundamental technique in molecular biology."
		Neuroscience	"In recognition of his many important discoveries in cellular and molecular physiology which have greatly advanced our knowledge of synaptic transmission in the nervous system and of long term effects of trophic interaction between neurones and effector cells."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his pioneering work on the molecular chemistry of metal-alkoxides and metal-amides, their synthesis, structure and bonding, and for his studies of their conversions to metal-oxides and metal-nitrides, processes which now find common place applications in materials science, especially in the fields of microelectronics and chemical vapour deposition."
1999		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished work over many years in chemical engineering, including fluid flow, process dynamics, gas absorption and fluidization technology which has been concerned with real problems of industrial significance."
		Neuroscience	"In recognition of his fundamental contributions to our knowledge of the somatosensory system and, in particular, pain mechanisms, where his insights led to the therapeutic use of electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves, dorsal columns of the spinal cord, and brain stem for the control of pain, methods that are now in widespread use."
		Physics	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to the development and application of electron microscopy of materials, and to the underlying theories of electron scattering, in particular his extensive contributions to inelastic scattering theory, his systematic high resolution microscope studies of amorphous materials, his introduction of the concept of coherence volume for hollow cone dark field imaging and his pioneering use of a high angle annular dark field detector to image small catalyst particles."
2000		Computer science Computer science Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems...	"In recognition of his invention and subsequent development of the World Wide Web, designing the universal resource locator (URL), an addressing system to give each Web page a unique location and the two protocols HTTP and HTML."
		Neuroscience	"In recognition of his development of new hypotheses challenging the accepted views on autonomic neurotransmission, leading to new advances in the understanding of purinergic neurotransmission."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his work in elucidating the mechanism of reactions involving free radicals."
2001		Biology	"In recognition of his pioneering work on microsurgery of the mouse blastocyst which laid the foundation for major advances in biological knowledge, both in developmental biology and in understanding of gene function."
		Biology	"In recognition of his work on the neurobiological mechanisms of behavioural imprinting, embracing molecular, cellular, anatomical, electrophysiological and ethological approaches to learning and memory."
		Physics	"In recognition of his enormous influence across a wide spectrum of physical sciences, particularly theoretical condensed matter physics."
2002		Mathematics	"In recognition of his outstanding work on the epidemiology of smoking and chronic disease."
		Genetics	"In recognition of her distinguished work on the molecular basis of cancer. She pioneered the use of transgenic mice to elucidate the role of various oncogenes in lymphoid malignancies."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his seminal contributions to the development and understanding of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods"
2003		Virology	"In recognition of his pioneering research into virology. His studies and discoveries in the mechanisms by which influenza virus binds to the host cell, and in virus-cell membrane fusion have had a fundamental impact on the field."
		Engineering	"In recognition of his outstanding work in the field of contact mechanics. His work his characterised by elegant experiments, skilful analyses and insightful explanations of observed phenomena."
		Geology	"in recognition of his seminal contributions to the fields of paleoceanography and geochemistry."
2004		Chemistry	"In recognition of his work in both academia and industry, pioneering a new era of rational drug discovery."
		Genetics	"In recognition of his outstanding discoveries and inventions which have had major impacts on large areas of genetics. "
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his distinguished career in the field of inorganic chemistry over the last 50 years, mainly in the area of the transition elements."
2005		Physics	"In recognition of his work which has had the highest level of influence in condensed matter physics and has resulted in the creation of the modern field of semiconductor nanostructures."
		Biology	"In recognition of his discoveries which have revealed the principles underlying cell signalling, and have been pivotal in understanding pathological states such as cancer."
		Physics	"In recognition of his seminal contributions to wetting transitions, dislocation melting and criticality of ionic solutions and many other topics in Statistical Mechanics."
2006		Botany	"In recognition of his profoundly significant recent discoveries for not only plants but for all of biology and for medicine."
		Biochemistry	"discovering a key aspect of cell cycle control, the protein cyclin which is a component of cyclin dependent kinases, demonstrating his ability to grasp the significance of the result outside his immediate sphere of interest."
		Physics	"In recognition of his seminal contributions in surface sciences, disordered systems, photonics and most recently in metamaterials and the concept of the perfect lens."
2007		Medicine	"making fundamental contributions to our understanding of DNA repair. His achievements stand out for their great originality, breadth and lasting influence."
		Physics	"In recognition of his many outstanding contributions and for continuing to use his prodigious talents on behalf of industry, government and academe to this day."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his outstanding contributions to chemical synthesis with far reaching implications, particularly for the field of functional polymeric materials."
2008		Archeology	"In recognition of his contribution to the rapid development of accelerator mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating techniques."
		Biochemistry	"In recognition of his major contribution to our understanding of the role of protein phosphorylation in cell regulation."
		Chemistry	"In recognition of his seminal work in protein engineering, which he has developed into a fundamental tool in enzyme analysis and the problem of protein folding."
2009		Chemistry	"For his highly innovative and diverse contributions to solid-state and materials chemistry."
		Molecular Biology	"For his pivotal contributions to our understanding of the control of DNA replication and nuclear protein transport, which has led to a novel screening method for cancer diagnosis."
		Biophysics	"For his outstanding contributions to the understanding of the mechanisms of protein folding and mis-folding, and the implications for disease."
2010		Quantum optics Quantum optics Quantum optics is a field of research in physics, dealing with the application of quantum mechanics to phenomena involving light and its interactions with matter.- History of quantum optics :...	"for his pioneering research and international leadership in the field of quantum optics and quantum information science."
		Biology	"for his pivotal contributions to the understanding of early mammalian development."
		Chemistry	"for his pioneering work on protein electrochemistry, which revolutionised the diagnostic testing of glucose and many other bioelectrochemical assays."
2011		Chemistry	"for his pioneering research in organic chemistry and outstanding contributions to the methodology of synthesis."
		Molecular Biology	"for his highly influential discoveries of the 'Holliday junction' structure in meiotic recombination and the function of DNA methylation at CG base pairs."
		Biophysics	"for his pioneering work in protein engineering and therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, and his contributions as an inventor and entrepreneur."

External links

• Royal Society: Medals and Awards