Salt industry in Syracuse, New York
Encyclopedia
The salt industry has a long history in and around Syracuse, New York
. Jesuit missionaries visiting the region in 1654 were the first to report salty brine
springs around the southern end of "Salt Lake", known today as Onondaga Lake
. Later, the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
and designation of the area by the State of New York as the "Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation" provided the basis for commercial salt production from the late 18th century through the early 20th century. The salt springs extended around much of Onondaga Lake
, originating in the town of Salina
and passing through Geddes
and Liverpool
to the mouth of Ninemile Creek
, a distance of almost nine miles. Until 1900 the majority of the salt used in the United States
came from Syracuse. Even today, Syracuse is sometimes known as "the Salt City".
systems in the Onondaga Creek Valley provided the brine that stimulated early growth in the Syracuse
area. Many settlers came to the region to mine the salt and earn a better standard of living for their families.
Throughout the years, a wide variety of coarse salt produced from boiling and refined salt produced by the solar method were manufactured on the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation including; dairy, table, common, fine and fertilizing salts.
area were formed over a period of 300 to 500 million years ago. On the East Coast of North America
, two landmasses collided and formed a large mountain range. A large shallow depression to the west formed an inland sea. Precipitation and runoff over millions of years gradually eroded the mountain range and sediment, in the form of mud, consolidated into thick layers of what later hardened into shale.
The northern shore of the inland sea was situated in Tully
, about five miles south of the city. The salt was formed after evaporation from the shallowest areas left layers of evaporites or salts. These included calcium carbonate
(calcite), calcium sulfate
(gypsum) and sodium chloride
(halite
), also known as common salt.
During the Ice Age
, the processes of glaciation followed by deglaciation eroded and reshaped the bedrock
foundation that consists of limestone
, shale
and evaporite deposits. The gradual shedding of glacial deposits created the aquifer
that provide a "hydraulic connection" between the halite
deposits south of the city in Tully
and the salt springs at the southeastern end of Onondaga Lake
.
The resulting Onondaga Formation was the source of salt belonging to the Onondaga salt-group which extends from the Hudson Valley
through Syracuse
to Wyoming County, New York
where salt wells were established in the early 1880s. From there, it continues through Southern Ontario
to Saginaw, Michigan
and extends as far west as Wisconsin
and Iowa
.
Salt springs are one of three sources from which salt is obtained; rock salt (fossil salt), sea water and salt brine
which is derived from springs, lakes, or wells. The brine obtained from the lake is one quality, but it yields two qualities of salt by different processes of evaporation; solar heat being used in the evaporation of coarse salt and thermal heat (boiling) in the evaporation of refined salt.
were well known to the Jesuit missionaries. Early in the 16th century a number of Spaniards traveled from Florida
in order to examine a "mysterious white substance" that covered the ground.
On August 5, 1654, Father Simon Le Moyne
, a French Jesuit missionary, arrived in the Onondaga village. During his short stay, Le Moyne drank from a spring which the Onondagas believed to be tainted due to an evil spirit. Unlike the Onondagas who considered the salt springs evil, the French
instead, recognized the intrinsic value of the salt.
at New Amsterdam
and Fort Orange, Albany, New York
, were in receipt of information that "salt grew out of the ground," however, they refused to believe it.
began to take an active interest in the land around Onondaga Lake
in the early 18th century. They befriended the Onondagas by giving them guns, which were highly prized.
British
agent, Sir William Johnson
, acquired 200000 acres (809,372,000 m²) of land in the Mohawk
country near present day Johnstown, New York
. In 1751, Johnson heard that the French
intended on securing a military post in the vicinity of the salt springs. He discussed the consequences of that action with the Onondagas and proposed that they grant him rights to all of Onondaga Lake
and a two-mile band of land around it. The Onondagas agreed and were paid £350 sterling.
The deed made in 1773 by Sir William Johnson with the Onondaga chiefs was declared invalid in September 1788.
, Samuel Kirkland
, from Scotland
, who had come to Central New York
to teach the Seneca
and Oneida people, became interested in the Syracuse "salt lands" and notified General Philip Schuyler
about them. At the following session of the Continental Congress
, Schuyler observed that the springs could be "improved to advantage" provided someone familiar with salt boiling "could attend to it," however, Congress failed to act on the suggestion and 11 years passed before any action was taken.
from the Onondagas. The treaty, by which the purchase was made, was signed by 23 Indian chiefs and by Governor George Clinton
, William Floyd
(Lieutenant Governor), Ezra L'Hommedieu
(State Assembly), Richard Varick
(Attorney General), Samuel Jones
(Chancellor of the State), Egbert Benson
(Attorney General) and Peter Gansevoort, Jr.
, all historic names in New York State.
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
transferred lands around Onondaga Lake
from the Onondaga Nation to local salt producers with the stipulation that the land would be used to produce salt "for the common use of everyone." As a result of the treaty, the area was designated by the State as the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation.
The salt works were shaped in a crescent in the salt marshes bordering the southeastern shore of Onondaga Lake
and covered nearly 1000 acres (4,046,860 m²). By 1872, the Onondaga Salt Lake Reservation occupied 750 acres (3,035,145 m²) and private individuals owned about 200 acres (809,372 m²) with the remainder "waste land." The salt reservation was approximately 9 miles (14.5 km) long by 11 miles (17.7 km) wide.
While Onondaga County was slowly expanding, much activity was occurring at the salt springs. Men were arriving with their families to make a living from the salt industry. During 1788, early Syracuse
pioneers, Asa Danforth
and Comfort Tyler
were the first to arrive. The third settler arrived in 1789 and by 1792 six families had set up household. They lived and worked in an area east of lower Onondaga Lake
called Salt Point, later known as Salina
.
John Danforth, brother of Asa Danforth
, followed him to the area and settled in Liverpool, New York
. He was also an early manufacturer of salt on the shores of Onondaga Lake
.
was rampant and laborers and their families suffered the effects of fevers and nausea.
In 1793 out of a total population of 33 people, 30 were sick and the following year the population had grown to 63, but 23 died that year. Those that made it through the summer and fall seasons, traded salt for food items such as meat, produce, flour, cheese and maple syrup during the winter months. Visitors to Salt Point in the winter arrived via Iroquois
trails because the settlers did not yet have a system of roads.
and Comfort Tyler
. Both were Revolutionary War veterans who settled on land they obtained from a grant from the newly formed government of the United States
. Both men arrived at the salt springs during 1788 and began salt production in 1789 when Danforth carried a five pail kettle from his residence at Onondaga Hollow to Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. He placed his coat on his head, inverted the kettle, and is said to have "carried it the whole distance without taking it off to rest." Danforth noted that the first time he made salt he used a 15 gallon kettle and in nine hours he had "boiled down" about 30 pounds (13.6 kg) of salt.
Comfort Tyler
accompanied him, carrying an axe, chain and other necessary implements for the purpose of making a "suitable erection to boil salt." They set up two crotches and suspended their kettle on a chain around a pole between them. After a sufficient quantity was made, they would hide their implements in the bushes until needed again. The two continued the practice for another year until 1790.
By 1798, salt houses were built of logs. Asa Danforth
was a member of The Federal Company along with Jedediah Sanger, Daniel Keeler, Thomas Hart, Ebenezer Butler, Elisha Alvord and Hezekiah Olcott. The group organized in 1798 and the object of the company was to manufacture salt on a "stupendous scale." They erected a building capable of holding 32 kettles which were set in boiling blocks of four kettles each. Water was then pumped by hand, from a single shallow well, into reservoirs made of "dug out white wood logs" used for pipes."
Before the construction of the Erie Canal
, transportation was difficult. Oxen would travel through marshy land and haul out salt on stone-boats.
By pumping brine to the surface in the early 1800s, the amount of brine withdrawn from deep groundwater consequently increased. When the outlet of Onondaga Lake
was lowered in 1822 for construction of the Erie Canal
, this lowered the water table around the lake and "caused the brine springs to flow at higher rates than before." Over the course of many years, this resulted in freshwater from aquifers throughout Onondaga Creek Valley to recharge which diluted the deepwater brine. The less concentrated brine required more time to evaporate and the total yield was less than a more highly concentrated solution.
In 1875, chemists reported that the strength of the brine was much greater than in 1874 due to two new wells which were sunk in the Syracuse district to replace the older, shallow wells. The shallow wells decreased in strength by 33 percent when pumped to their full capacity in a short period of time.
During 1876, the State was very concerned with the salinity of the brine relative to the cost of the fuel to reduce it to salt. There was increased competition in the salt industry with the strongest rivals in Michigan
and Canada
. Throughout the early 1870s, the State had funded the sinking of several new deep wells in order to increase the level of the average salinity of brine taken from the reservation. It was decided that if a sufficient number of deep wells were drilled that would yield a brine of 72 °S average strength, and the weak, shallow wells were abandoned entirely, the yield per ton of coal used would increase to 45 bushels from the average 36 bushels produced in the early 1870s. This realized an overall reduction in the price of coal from .10 cents to .08 cents per bushel of salt.
In 1795, the Onondagas relinquished their common rights to the land around Onondaga Lake
to the State.
The first legislation was passed on April 1, 1797 and soon after, the State began the regulation of salt production.
The New York State Legislature designated a one-mile wide strip of land around the northern half of the lake as the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. Laws were passed to regulate the methods used in the production including boiling and solar evaporation, storage, and sale of the salt. A duty collection was also established at .04 cents for every bushel of salt produced on the reservation. Although there was no charge for the brine itself, the State set the price of salt and required that salt be stored for a fee in government warehouses until it was sold. The State also had the right to certify the quantity and quality of all salt produced. In order to maintain a lease-hold, lessees were required to produce a minimum of ten bushels (56 pounds (25.4 kg) each) of salt per year for "every kettle or pan used" and were prohibited from charging more than .60 cents a bushel. They were also required to pay .04 cents per bushel tax in lieu of rent and an additional .01 for storage.
Salt lots were surveyed and were made available for multi-year leases. In 1797, the State split the land into salt lots, store lots and pasture lots, not to exceed 10 acres (40,468.6 m²) each, which allowed private parties to dig wells and manufacture salt in consideration of payment of tax to the State. The reservation now comprised 15000 acres (60,702,900 m²) and the industry was a "benefit" to the State of New York for the next 100 years.
The reservation reserved the right upon the expiration of the lease to renew for a term of seven years. They also gave the salt processors the ability to buy the property outright at its "true value."
The same act authorized the appointment of a superintendent of the salt springs by the Governor, with the consent of the Council of Appointment which was a powerful Arbitrary Board. Salary was fixed at $800 per year and men appointed to the position were prohibited from having any interest in the salt springs. The first superintendents were James Duane and Robert Yates. William Kirkpatrick
(1769–1832), a medical doctor, moved to Salina
in 1806. He subsequently became superintendent of the reservation and served from 1807 through 1810. He was appointed a second time, and served from 1810 through 1831.
Many of the salt boilers did not want state involvement which they "deemed as interference." In order to avoid paying duty, many smuggled large amounts of salt, however, the superintendent "who had almost absolute power" could personally attest to each bushel produced.
The State of New York owned and administered the Onondaga Salt Spring Reservation from 1797 to 1908, leasing out the land to individuals to build boiling blocks, solar sheds and other salt-making facilities. The enterprise consisted of a state-owned network of wells, rigs, pump houses, pipelines, reservoirs and wharves.
The superintendent of the salt springs and his deputies would sink the wells, pump the water and distribute the water among the manufactories. They would also inspect the salt, weigh and brand the packages and collect the State duties.
The original salt works was divided into four areas; Salt Point (later known as Salina
), Geddes
, Green Point and Liverpool
. The Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation only included the Salt Point and the Geddes works. This meant the Green Point and Liverpool
works were unregulated by the State. Salt boilers in these areas were considered squatters and could be prosecuted, however, the law was not enforced.
settled in Geddes
on the west shore of Onondaga Lake
and by 1796 he erected the first salt manufactory there. The Indians claimed the salt springs west of the lake, but they adopted Geddes into their tribe and allowed him to continue to make salt. Other settlers came and over time, small clusters of log houses were built around the "scattered" salt works along the lake shore.
Geddes was hired by the State in 1797 to survey Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation and lay out the first road in Salt Point. During 1798, Salt Point became the village of Salina
. The Surveyor-General, Simeon DeWitt employed Geddes to design the streets. Although Geddes had no formal training in surveying, DeWitt saw great potential in him. Soon Geddes sold his interest in the Geddes salt works to pursue other interests and surveying continued to be an important role for much of his life.
In 1804, an act was passed that directed the sale of 250 acres (1,011,715 m²) of the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation for the purpose of "laying out and improving a road" running from lot 49, Manlius
, to lot 38, Onondaga
, east and west through the reservation. James Geddes
laid out the design of the new road in "rather an irregular form so that as much dry land might be secured as possible." The land, now the central portion of the city of Syracuse
, was purchased by Abraham Walton for $6,650 and soon referred to as the Walton Tract.
an traders, produced salt by the boiling process. Boiled salt was referred to as fine salt. From the earliest days, boiling was the preferred method of production because it was fast and could be carried out all year long in all kinds of weather. It was also very easy and economical for an individual or small enterprise to get started because it didn't take much room or equipment. In the beginning, the salt miners were either squatters or homesteaders, many were just passing through. They boiled salt as a pastime and used the finished product to barter for other goods.
Most of the production methods employed were very basic. A kettle was hung on a branch which was suspended from two poles over a fire and the water gradually boiled away. Wet salt remained when the water evaporated and was emptied from the kettles and left to dry. Wood was plentiful and was used to maintain the fires.
By 1791, approximately 8,000 bushels of salt per year were produced on the reservation. Each bushel weighed 56 pounds (25.4 kg). An early salt boiler usually produced 600 bushels a year, worth approximately one dollar per bushel.
The word block was derived from the masonry setting of the kettles. The kettles were hemispherical in form, cast-iron in material, and about 3 foot (0.9144 m) in diameter. They were sunk in walls of brick or gray limestone from 50 to 100 in a row, sheltered in long, narrow houses. The walls were hollow, admitting the circulation of the fire of a furnace and the heat was driven under the kettles by a powerful blower. An Irishman tending the furnace would open the close fitting doors and shovel coal which "would disappear in the ferocious glow of the fire."
The large kettles held 150 gallons and were placed nearest to the firing pit. A long flue
ran the entire length of the shed and emptied into a tall chimney at the far end of the building. Smaller kettles, approximately 100 gallons, were placed further away from the fire, closer to the chimney where the heat was less intense.
The pans would "bubble" with milky liquid and the vapor in the air was so dense that the men working next to the kettles appeared "phantom-like hovering in a gauzy perspective."
The boiling blocks contained as many as 80 kettles and operated 24 hours a day. The salt block owners at first burned hundreds of cords of wood per day but as the supply dwindled, 11 to 12 tons of coal per day were needed to sustain the fire. Each kettle would "boil down" every eight hours, or three times every 24 hours. Iron oxides and calcium chloride
that settled in the bottom of the kettle were removed. Salt crystals were skimmed off the top with a long handled scoop and the remaining wet salt was placed into splint ash baskets to drain. A boiling block could produce three to four bushels in five hours.
Each kettle held about 50 gallons of water, which was admitted from the cistern
that contained calcium chloride
, magnesium
and gypsum
(sulphate of lime) with a faint trace of peroxide
of iron. When the water was boiled, these substances fell to the bottom where they were caught in a simple device known as a bittern pan which is a shallow basin of sheet-iron with an upright handle that projects above the surface of the water. All refuse created from the manufacture of salt was called bittern
(magnesium chloride) and was extracted from the water in the form of chalky paste, which was discharged into a waste drain at either side of the kettles. A long pipe for conveying the water, passed between the two rows of kettles, each kettle drawing new supplies of water.
In some cases, the kettles were heated inside steam jackets. The advantage was that all had the same steam pressure and the temperature was uniform. As a result, only one quality of salt was produced.
Salt is also made by the pan process using direct evaporation over fire. Large wrought-iron pans that were 24 feet (7.3 m) wide, 100 feet (30.5 m) long, and 12 inches (30.5 cm) deep were used. The pans were divided into two sections by a loose partition, which allowed the brine to flow slowly from the rear to the front section. A second, smaller pan was set behind and slightly above the first, so that its contents could be siphoned into the front pan. Both were heated by flues from grates before the gases passed into the chimney. The pans were inclined and sloping wooden platforms, called drips, were joined to them on which the salt was drained. The brine was purified with milk of lime, the same as in the kettle process.
The plant was in continuous operation, night and day, for about 14 days with two "runs" being made each month. The State mandated that salt should be stored for 14 days in order to cure properly. The salt was packed into barrels for shipment which were tested by the State Inspector to make sure the salt was pure and properly dried.
By 1872 there were 316 fine salt blocks and four large mills where table salt and dairy salt were produced. The vats and blocks were valued at $4.7 million. At that time, the industry employed 5,000 men and paid an annual tax of over $86,000 to the State of New York. An additional $80,000 was paid for canal tolls and $350,000 for freight on lake, river and canal.
During the first year of regulated salt production in 1797, almost 26,000 bushels of salt were produced and by 1872, that number had risen to nearly nine million bushels of salt.
natural waterways including rivers and lakes, served as principal means of transportation. But these water routes were uncertain, difficult, and limited, and portages were slow and expensive. Syracuse salt manufacturers, especially Joshua Forman and James Geddes, were early "propagandists" on behalf of the Erie Canal
project.
The opening of the Erie Canal
in 1825 caused a steep increase in the sale of salt, not only because of the improved and lower cost of transportation, but additionally, the ease of canal shipment caused New York State farms to change from wheat to pork production and curing pork required a lot of salt.
After the War of 1812
, it became difficult to obtain salt from abroad and commercial salt production became an important Syracuse
industry. The Erie Canal
allowed the bulky and low-priced Onondaga salt to be transported to Chicago
and beyond via the Great Lakes
relatively quickly and inexpensively.
By 1837, the salt manufacturers, who were the main beneficiaries of the Erie Canal
organized and suggested that the tax on a bushel of salt should be increased from .04 cents a bushel to .05 cents per bushel, which enabled eight million dollars of canal debt to be "liquidated." In 1838, taxes were raised to .06 cents per bushel, however, in 1846 they were reduced to .01 per bushel which was "ample" to cover the expenses of the State in connection with the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation.
With the lower freight rates on the canal, the production of salt increased rapidly, reaching a high point of 8,000,000 bushels annually during the Civil War
period. Syracuse
and Salina
, situated on the canal halfway between Albany
and Buffalo
, and at the junction with the Oswego Canal
, which opened in 1838, became important canal ports.
By 1893, the salt industry was in decline and no longer a viable source of tax revenue for the State of New York, however, the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation contributed over two million dollars toward the construction of the Erie Canal
and Barge Canal.
Although the Erie Canal
was known by many names, those in Syracuse called it "the ditch that salt built."
originated in Syracuse
and once comprised the bulk of a salt worker's daily diet. During the 19th century, Irish salt miners would bring a bag of small, unpeeled, substandard potatoes to work each day. Come lunch time, they boiled the potatoes in the "free-flowing" salt brine.
By the early 20th century, the potatoes were a Central New York
favorite and local entrepreneur, John Hinerwadel, started serving them as a side "at his famous clambakes." He later began packaging five-pound bags of potatoes along with a 12-ounce box of salt and labeled them "Hinerwadel's Famous Original Salt Potatoes." The brand is still available in the market today.
, salt production in Syracuse "secured the North's salt supply." At the same time, Northern forces were in control of salt mines in Virginia
and Pennsylvania
, which meant southerners could not buy salt at any price. The salt shortage is believed to be one of the reasons the South lost the war. Salt produced on the reservation was considered so critical during the Civil War
that the salt workers were exempted from both jury duty
and military conscription in the mid-1860s.
from Pennsylvania
was adding exorbitant costs to the production of Onondaga salt. Many salt producers began to switch operation from boiling their salt to the solar evaporation method by the mid-19th century.
The idea of solar salt production was first conceived in 1821 by Judge Joshua Forman, who then resided in Syracuse and is considered the founder of the city. Together, with Isaiah Townsend, of Albany, New York
, he traveled to New Bedford, Massachusetts
, for the purpose of examining salt works that had been erected there. Forman met there with Stephen Smith, "with whom he counseled upon the subject."
After Forman discussed the strength of the water in Onondaga Lake
and its purity and abundance, Smith consented to "embark in the enterprise of erecting similar works" in Syracuse. Smith, together with William Rotch, Jr., Samuel Rodman and James Arnold of New Bedford, formed the Onondaga Salt Company. Smith was the controlling agent and Henry Gifford was superintendent of the construction.
Forman traveled to Albany subsequent to the formation of the company and "procured the passage of a law by the Legislature, authorizing the company to take possession of the grounds and erect the necessary works." He later "applied" to Henry Eckford, a "celebrated" naval architect of New York, who consented, and with other local businessmen, established The Syracuse Salt Company. Eckford was then owner of the Walton Tract, which encompassed a large section of downtown Syracuse. Forman was appointed as agent of the company and Matthew L. Davis, secretary.
During that period, the Salt Springs were called the Old Federal Springs. The water was pumped by hand labor by men "perched on high stagings, and collected into rude reservoirs for distribution."
The two companies were formed immediatedly and set about the execution of their plans. The first thing done was to cut away the trees and clear the grounds in the area between the "Genesee turnpike" and the Erie Canal
. This was an "almost impassable swamp" but clearing the land was preparatory to the erection of the first salt vats. The two companies, at their joint expense, erected the "first great reservoir, pumps and aqueducts at Salina" for the purpose of securing a greater supply of water. The machinery was propelled by surplus water from a branch of the canal and the "starting point" for the vats was just north of Church Street.
After the two works were "fairly under way," the Onondaga Salt Company broke ground west of Onondaga Creek
, near the dwelling subsequently occupied by Joseph Savage, where "the first growth of trees was still standing" and yielded 100 cords of wood per acre.
The building of vats "was prosecuted with great diligence and energy" and approximately 2000000 feet (609,600 m) of lumber was consumed annually for a period of several years in order to construct the vats.
By 1826, Gifford's salt works covered 20 acres (80,937.2 m²) on ground on "private account;" however, he was unable to procure water for three years.
For the first 44 years of salt production, only boiled salt was manufactured; however, by 1841, a grand total of 220,247 barrels of solar salt was produced annually. This number steadily increased for the next 40 years.
That same year, the Legislature ruled that all salt manufacturers could lease their land for 30 years in an attempt to reduce the number of lawsuits that had resulted by "virtue of the question of priority of leases."
The production of salt by solar evaporation, also known as solar salt, required brine of a higher concentration than was available from the local salt springs. Shallow wells were constructed in an attempt to find more concentrated brine. Solar evaporation was also a slower method and wet weather, which was common in the area, could delay the process, however, it did prove to be cost effective and by 1864, solar reduction had become the primary means of salt production. Large areas of the lake shore were set aside for salt fields. One disadvantage was that solar salt could only be produced during the warmer months between April and early November.
The solar method was performed in three phases ;
Once salt crystals formed, they were broken apart and pushed to the edge of the cover and the crystallized salt was transferred to carts for transport to the State storage warehouses where it was raked together and placed into tubs with perforated bottoms drained for 14 days before being packed in barrels for the market. The salt was "harvested" approximately three times a season.
A local news reporter in 1878 noted that the "gray that from a distance had seemed to overspread the ground was not mist, but acres and acres of box-like vats, in which the brine was evaporating." The vats and roofs were made of unpainted timber, which the weather had stained gray. "There was nothing to indicate that thousands of men were employed on the ground in the salt business, an impressive air of quietude and inaction possessing this scene."
By 1900, there were over 43,000 salt covers with an evaporating surface of over 12000000 square feet (1,114,836.5 m²). During a good season, from three to four million bushels of salt were produced.
All operations on the salt fields were suspended during the colder months, from early December until March 1 each year. Hence, the average "working" year was only 70 days long, as there was only a short timeframe the weather was warm and dry enough for salt to evaporate by the solar process.
Beginning in 1838, the State authorized the drilling of deep wells at several locations around the lake to locate the source of the brine; however, none of the wells that were drilled were able to pinpoint the source.
By 1878, the wells were 300 feet (91.4 m) to 450 feet (137.2 m) deep. When the "cemented earth" was pierced by a drill, the salt-water rose to within 18 feet (5.5 m) of the surface and was raised the remainder of the way by small pumps driven by steam. That year, it was estimated that a total of over 200 wells had been sunk since 1797, at a cost of $750,000 and a yield of salt that was nearly 300 million bushels, or enough to cover a surface of 120000000 square feet (11,148,364.8 m²) with solid salt 12 inches (30.5 cm) deep. In 1878, 38 wells were in use and seven million bushels were produced annually.
The wells were enclosed in well "houses" that had "dwarfed towers." They were not simple excavations, like garden-wells and instead, were narrow and deep. The brine was obtained by boring wells 8 inches (20.3 cm) to 10 inches (25.4 cm) in diameter which were lined with iron casings to eliminate contamination from surface water. The iron casings were driven in lengths of 18 feet (5.5 m) to the depths of the brine. When the length was driven, another would be screwed to it, and that would be forced down by pressure from above. Length after length was added, until a continuous pipe of 300 feet (91.4 m) or 400 feet (121.9 m) was formed and the salt water "bubbled up."
, Liverpool
, Salina
and Syracuse
. The pumps forced brine water from the lake into tall reservoirs.
The brine was raised by pumps with an endless wire rope chain that was powered by an engine. When the brine reached the surface, it had a slightly "turbid appearance." This was the result of the brine mixing with clay and fine sand raised from the well, together with small bubbles of carbon dioxide
. The brine also contained ferrous carbonate which was held in the solution by carbon dioxide
. As the carbon dioxide
escaped, the ferrous salt absorbed oxygen
from the air and the hydrated ferric oxide separated as a "yellowish red turbidity," which settled after a short period, leaving behind a clear brine.
Brine was pumped from the salt wells into small settling tanks and from there it was channeled through wooden log pipes to a central distribution tank which was set at an elevation higher than the boiling blocks so that flow could be controlled by gravity. If the central storage tank was lower than some of the boiling blocks or solar fields, the brine would have to be pumped into a large reservoir located at the top of an 80 feet (24.4 m) tower-like structure situated on adjacent high ground. From this tower the brine was conducted through wooden pipes by its own gravity to the various manufactories on the reservation.
The pump was driven by an overshot water wheel which was 22 feet (6.7 m) in diameter. A back-up steam pump was close by in case of break-down. The pump operated from the beginning of April to late November or early December, depending on weather conditions as the wheel could not operate once the canal froze. Boiled salt could be produced each year only as long as the water wheel turned.
In the 1890s, a new system was developed for pumping the brine from deep wells using compressed air. This method produced about 150-160 gallons of brine per minute from wells that were 100 feet (30.5 m) deep.
(also known as Tupelo) tree was particularly adapted for "brine-pipe" use in the salt industry were so valuable and in such high demand, the tree is now virtually extinct within a radius of 10 miles (16.1 km) of the city.
The pipes were examined in 1940 by Harry P. Brown, professor of wood technology at the State College of Forestry
in Syracuse
who determined that the brine pipes were constructed from both thysa sylvatica or thysa aquatica, also known as Tupelo
and grown in the south. He "regarded it as interesting" that so much wood was available in the area, most of which was from the native northern tree, "for it is of scattered growth, its seed spread by birds."
The pipes were made from logs, commonly known as elm logs, which were hollowed out and the end was inserted into another log pipe and bound by "iron ribbons." There were 50 miles of pipes that could be seen all over the reservation which "look like gray snakes as they follow the undulations of the ground, creeping up the walls of buildings and bridges of trestle work." The pipes were always laid above ground and were "said to be very durable."
The power from the main engine was carried to other parts of the building by wheels, shafts and leather bands. In one room, the finished product was washed, for "despite the attention it has received" in the boiling houses, some of the chlorides of calcium, magnesium
and gypsum
remained behind. The salt was placed into a shallow tube partly filled with water, where it was turned over and over and up and down by corkscrew-like shafts until every particle of alloy was separated. The refuse was sold by the refiners to farmers for agricultural purposes at $1.50 a ton.
After the salt had been washed it was dried in long, iron tubular cylinders, which revolved over furnaces in a constant motion until the salt was as parched and as hot as desert sand, the vapor parsing from it through steam vents. It was next carried upstairs by an endless chain of small buckets. The buckets loaded and unloaded themselves automatically. On the upper floors, the grinding was done. Salt intended for dairy purposes was ground between granite rollers and that intended for table use was put through an ordinary flouring mill.
A number of girls dressed in "showy prints" and with their hair tied up in "variegated kerchiefs", scooped the salt up into small cotton bags and sewed them up with "astonishing speed." The bags were then packed in barrels and shipped to market.
An analysis of the quality of the salt in 1876 made by the Butter and Cheese Exchange reported that the Syracuse dairy salt was "superior to all others" and had a lower level of total impurities. There had been a long-standing "prejudice" by dairymen against Onondaga salt because of perceived impurities which were proven false.
, appearing in a concert at the National Theater. She ended up staying an extra day in order to visit the salt fields. An enterprising marketer was quick to appreciate the advertising possibilities of the visit and history records show that a short time later, the Jenny Lind brand of salt was placed on the market.
In 1860, the local manufacturers united and formed the Salt Company of Onondaga. The property was valued at $3,200,000.
During 1874, Ashton Salt Mill was operating in the town of Geddes
, on the western edge of the city and Saginaw Salt Works was located southwest of the city in the town of Onondaga
. That same year, several other salt producers were operating within the city limits including; G. A. Porter & Company, Haskin's Salt Mill and J. W. Barker & Company.
In 1878, Geddes was the home of Western Coarse Salt Company, Turk's Island Coarse Salt Company, Geddes Coarse Salt Company, Union Coarse Salt Company, Cape Cod Coarse Salt Company, W. & D. Kirkpatrick of No. 7 Wieting Block, Draper & Porter, W. B. Boyd, Mrs. S. O. Ely and J. F. Paige.
During 1879, the city directory
had a list of salt manufacturers Excelsior Dairy Salt Company located at 1 Syracuse Savings Bank Building, McChesney & Caten at 81 East Water, N. Y. S. Salt Springs at 58 North Salina, Salt Springs Solar Coarse Salt Company of 6 Wieting Block and Star Salt Mills at 8 North West. There were also individuals listed such as Robert Young of Green Point Road, Samuel H. Burritt and George A. Porter, both of Basin near Court Street.
In 1893, The American Dairy Salt Company, Ltd. had their general office at No. 1 Clinton Block. The Onondaga Coarse Salt Association were manufacturers of coarse or solar salt including; dairy, table, common, fine and fertilizing salts. By 1884, Thomas Gale was the president, J. W. Barker was secretary and Thomas Malloy was treasurer. In 1893, Thomas K. Gale still was president, Thomas Malloy was the receiver and treasurer, W. H. H. Gere was vice-president and Lewis A. Hawley was recording secretary. In 1910, the company was shipping salt to Canada
.
In 1874 the total amount of salt produced was 6,029,300 bushels and duty paid was $60,293. By 1875, the number rose to 7,179,446 bushels and duty paid was $71,794. During that same period, the expenses amounted to $65,972 which meant total revenue was $66,115.
established a chemical plant along the southern shore of Onondaga Lake
to manufacture soda ash from the halite
and limestone
found within the bedrock
. The concentration from the springs and wells in the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation gradually diminished over the years and this forced the company to seek additional sources of brine.
Salt wells that tapped into halite
(common salt) beds in the local Salina shale near Tully, New York
, 15 miles south of the city were developed in the 19th century. The north flowing brine from Tully, New York
was the source of salt for the "salty springs" found along the shoreline of Onondaga Lake
.
The company drilled several deep test holes in the area south of Syracuse
and eventually encountered halite
deposits at a depth of 1216 feet (370.6 m) below land surface in the southern end of Tully valley
. More than 120 wells were drilled into four halite beds on the east and west flanks of the southern part of the valley from 1890 through 1986. The brine withdrawn from the Tully valley
brinefield over a 96-year period resulted in the extraction of more than 96 million tons of salt.
was lowered in 1822 for construction of the Erie Canal
which permanently lowered the water table around the lake.
By 1882, the lake's water level was lowered after the outlet to the Seneca River
was dredged. As a result, the low lying swampy area the northern end of downtown Syracuse was drained and filled. The wetlands were eliminated, which had the positive effect of greatly reducing the threat of malaria
for residents of the growing city.
The water level in Onondaga Lake
was again raised when the Barge Canal was completed in 1918.
The water obtained from these wells had a nearly constant temperature of 50–52 °F and ranged in chemical character from saline to brine. The water later was discharged and drained back into Onondaga Lake
. Although this process did not utilize the salt resource, it took saline water from the ground-water system and released it into freshwater streams. Ultimately, this increased the salinity of the surface-water system.
The use of ground water for cooling purposes in the area declined and eventually ceased with the advent of air conditioning
. It is currently unknown the total amount of salt withdrawn from the aquifer system, nor the exact number of wells or their locations. The presence of these wells is of concern because the old and decaying well casings could "provide a hydraulic connection between the brine-bearing sand and gravel aquifers and the surface-water system."
, the salt industry began to decline. By 1876, there was increased competition in the industry with the strongest rivals in Michigan
and Canada
. Every effort possible was made to improve the brine in order to put Onondaga salt in a position to "cope" with its new rivals and increase the revenue of the state.
Throughout the early 1870s, the State had taken several steps such as sinking new deep wells in order to increase the average salinity of brine taken from the reservation, thereby decreasing the amount paid for the coal used to reduce it to salt and make it more competitive in the market.
The State also experimented with several methods to more efficiently remove escaping steam from the boiling brine without any satisfactory results. Chemists spent seven years and over $100,000 in an attempt to use "superheated" steam passed through steam-pipes as well as heated air applied in various ways to assist the evaporation in the kettles and to save fuel. Patent furnaces and grates were also tried without sufficient results to pay for the extra expense.
The Godrich steam pan was built at great expense but abandoned as a failure. Two of the devices did produce good results including the Godrich plan with "hanging tubes" and the Gilson cylinders, although fuel saving was not realized which made "general adoption" out of the question.
In November 1882, an experimental well was sunk in Wyoming County, New York
at a depth of 1350 feet (411.5 m). This revealed a "wide extension" of the Wyoming salt basin. The salt was "exceedingly pure and in great quantity." The brine pumped was nearly 33 percent stronger than that of the Syracuse salt basin. Both localities were part of the Onondaga-Formation
. The Wyoming deposits were south of Rochester
and in the neighborhood of Warsaw
and Batavia in Western New York
.
During March 1885, a vein of salt was discovered near Phelps
while an oil company was boring for petroleum
near the town 20 feet (6.1 m) thick. According to a newsarticle; "The news of the discovery went like wildfire through the section and property owners were elated." Soon after, a company of wealthy citizens in Phelps
and Clifton Springs
was formed to manage the mines. Pumps were immediately set up and a large manufactory was constructed during the summer of 1885.
Additionally, many new salt reserves were found out west in Wyoming
and Utah
.
was weakening, contributed to the end of the salt industry in Syracuse
.
During 1908, the State of New York auctioned off its pipelines, pumping machinery and reservoirs to private industry. The Salt Springs Superintendent, who reported to the New York State Legislature, was let go in 1914. After salt production was discontinued by the State, it fell into the hands of private industry, although some of the land was still owned by the government.
The demise of the salt industry, despite its importance for so many decades, surprisingly was hardly noticed by residents of the city. The economy was booming and several features including the central location of Syracuse combined with its railroads and canals, access to raw materials and the presence of gypsum, brine, and limestone, and a large labor supply, all combined to attract varied industries. Eventually, the acreage devoted to salt works became more valuable as factory sites and the old industry was "forced out."
By 1920, the majority of salt produced was used to pack fish and in ceramic production at local companies such as Syracuse China
. Salt was also used to de-ice the local railroad and trolley tracks during the winter months. Additionally, the salt brine was in demand by the chemical companies such as Solvay Process Company
that were gradually replacing the salt manufacturers along the shores of Onondaga Lake
.
In 1922, a wind storm left much of the remaining salt yards in ruin. Some repairs were made and the industry struggled along until August 1926, when the last nine salt workers drew the final batch of brine and the salt industry closed its doors. The Onondaga Coarse Salt Company, the last manufacturer, had been in business for 125 years.
With the discovery of large deposits of natural sodium carbonate Trona
in 1938, near Green River
in Wyoming
, the Solvay process
became uneconomical and the Solvay Process Company
plant closed permanently in 1985. There are no Solvay plants in operation now in North America
; however, throughout the rest of the world the Solvay process
remains the major source of soda ash.
The closing of the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation in the early 20th century and the end to mining brine
in the southern part of the Tully valley
in the late 20th century marked the final chapter of salt mining in the Syracuse
region, but groundwater flowing along the southeastern shore of Onondaga lake
in Syracuse
still allows salty water from a 1000 feet (304.8 m) below the southern Tully valley
to flow by gravity feeding salt springs around the lake where the Salina shale contains no halite
beds.
brinefield area by Solvay Process Company
over a 96-year period resulted in the removal of more than 96 million tons of salt.
The days of salt production in Syracuse are long over, however, the city still honors the industry in names like Salina Street which is the main street through downtown, Solar Street, Salt Springs Road and the town of Salina, New York
. There is also a neighborhood enclave in Syracuse named Salt Springs
.
brought new life to the area when Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt turned the State land over to Onondaga County during the New Deal
era. Funding from the Work relief program, and the organization of the Onondaga County Emergency Work Bureau helped the county convert the area into Long Branch Park
during the early 1930s.
Included in the project was the construction of the Salt Museum which was built around a "still standing" boiling block chimney. The building stands on the site of the Sampson Jaqueth Salt Manufactory which was erected in 1856. One-third of the original chimney survives. The museum opened in 1933 and is still in operation. The museum is operated by Onondaga County Parks Department and is closed during the winter months.
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
. Jesuit missionaries visiting the region in 1654 were the first to report salty brine
Brine
Brine is water, saturated or nearly saturated with salt .Brine is used to preserve vegetables, fruit, fish, and meat, in a process known as brining . Brine is also commonly used to age Halloumi and Feta cheeses, or for pickling foodstuffs, as a means of preserving them...
springs around the southern end of "Salt Lake", known today as Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
. Later, the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix was a treaty signed in October 1784 at Fort Stanwix, located in present-day Rome, New York, between the United States and Native Americans...
and designation of the area by the State of New York as the "Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation" provided the basis for commercial salt production from the late 18th century through the early 20th century. The salt springs extended around much of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
, originating in the town of Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
and passing through Geddes
Geddes, New York
Geddes is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 17,740 at the 2000 census.The Town of Geddes is west of the neighborhood of Far Westside of Syracuse. The town is a western suburb of Syracuse.- History :...
and Liverpool
Liverpool, New York
Liverpool is a village located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 2,505 at the 2000 census. The name was adopted from the city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom...
to the mouth of Ninemile Creek
Ninemile Creek (Onondaga Lake)
Nine Mile Creek, a scenic stream noted for trout fishing, extends about twenty-five miles from Otisco Lake in the Town of Marcellus, New York. The Creek runs northward through the villages of Marcellus, New York and Camillus, New York in the Town of Camillus, New York, and discharges into Onondaga...
, a distance of almost nine miles. Until 1900 the majority of the salt used in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
came from Syracuse. Even today, Syracuse is sometimes known as "the Salt City".
History
A series of deep and shallow aquiferAquifer
An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology...
systems in the Onondaga Creek Valley provided the brine that stimulated early growth in the Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
area. Many settlers came to the region to mine the salt and earn a better standard of living for their families.
Throughout the years, a wide variety of coarse salt produced from boiling and refined salt produced by the solar method were manufactured on the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation including; dairy, table, common, fine and fertilizing salts.
Salt, limestone and shale
Thick layers of shale beneath the SyracuseSyracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
area were formed over a period of 300 to 500 million years ago. On the East Coast of North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
, two landmasses collided and formed a large mountain range. A large shallow depression to the west formed an inland sea. Precipitation and runoff over millions of years gradually eroded the mountain range and sediment, in the form of mud, consolidated into thick layers of what later hardened into shale.
Tully (village), New York
Tully is a village in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population was 924 at the 2000 census. The name of the village is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero....
, about five miles south of the city. The salt was formed after evaporation from the shallowest areas left layers of evaporites or salts. These included calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime,...
(calcite), calcium sulfate
Calcium sulfate
Calcium sulfate is a common laboratory and industrial chemical. In the form of γ-anhydrite , it is used as a desiccant. It is also used as a coagulant in products like tofu. In the natural state, unrefined calcium sulfate is a translucent, crystalline white rock...
(gypsum) and sodium chloride
Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt or halite, is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of the ocean and of the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms...
(halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
), also known as common salt.
During the Ice Age
Ice age
An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
, the processes of glaciation followed by deglaciation eroded and reshaped the bedrock
Bedrock
In stratigraphy, bedrock is the native consolidated rock underlying the surface of a terrestrial planet, usually the Earth. Above the bedrock is usually an area of broken and weathered unconsolidated rock in the basal subsoil...
foundation that consists of limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
, shale
Shale
Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other minerals is variable. Shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering...
and evaporite deposits. The gradual shedding of glacial deposits created the aquifer
Aquifer
An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology...
that provide a "hydraulic connection" between the halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
deposits south of the city in Tully
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
and the salt springs at the southeastern end of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
.
The resulting Onondaga Formation was the source of salt belonging to the Onondaga salt-group which extends from the Hudson Valley
Hudson Valley
The Hudson Valley comprises the valley of the Hudson River and its adjacent communities in New York State, United States, from northern Westchester County northward to the cities of Albany and Troy.-History:...
through Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
to Wyoming County, New York
Wyoming County, New York
Wyoming County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. At the 2010 census, the population was 42,155. The county seat is Warsaw. The name is from a modified Delaware Indian word meaning "broad bottom lands"...
where salt wells were established in the early 1880s. From there, it continues through Southern Ontario
Southern Ontario
Southern Ontario is a region of the province of Ontario, Canada that lies south of the French River and Algonquin Park. Depending on the inclusion of the Parry Sound and Muskoka districts, its surface area would cover between 14 to 15% of the province. It is the southernmost region of...
to Saginaw, Michigan
Saginaw, Michigan
Saginaw is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Saginaw County. The city of Saginaw was once a thriving lumber town and manufacturing center. Saginaw and Saginaw County lie in the Flint/Tri-Cities region of Michigan...
and extends as far west as Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
and Iowa
Iowa
Iowa is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland". It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New...
.
Salt springs are one of three sources from which salt is obtained; rock salt (fossil salt), sea water and salt brine
Brine
Brine is water, saturated or nearly saturated with salt .Brine is used to preserve vegetables, fruit, fish, and meat, in a process known as brining . Brine is also commonly used to age Halloumi and Feta cheeses, or for pickling foodstuffs, as a means of preserving them...
which is derived from springs, lakes, or wells. The brine obtained from the lake is one quality, but it yields two qualities of salt by different processes of evaporation; solar heat being used in the evaporation of coarse salt and thermal heat (boiling) in the evaporation of refined salt.
Jesuit missionaries
The salt springs of Onondaga LakeOnondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
were well known to the Jesuit missionaries. Early in the 16th century a number of Spaniards traveled from Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
in order to examine a "mysterious white substance" that covered the ground.
On August 5, 1654, Father Simon Le Moyne
Simon Le Moyne
Father Simon Le Moyne, S.J. was a Jesuit priest in Lower Canada who was involved in the mission to the Hurons. His notability in Canadian history comes from his work as an ambassador of peace to the Iroquois....
, a French Jesuit missionary, arrived in the Onondaga village. During his short stay, Le Moyne drank from a spring which the Onondagas believed to be tainted due to an evil spirit. Unlike the Onondagas who considered the salt springs evil, the French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
instead, recognized the intrinsic value of the salt.
Dutch at New Amsterdam
By 1660, the DutchNetherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
at New Amsterdam
New Amsterdam
New Amsterdam was a 17th-century Dutch colonial settlement that served as the capital of New Netherland. It later became New York City....
and Fort Orange, Albany, New York
Albany, New York
Albany is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York, the seat of Albany County, and the central city of New York's Capital District. Roughly north of New York City, Albany sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River...
, were in receipt of information that "salt grew out of the ground," however, they refused to believe it.
British interest
The BritishBritish people
The British are citizens of the United Kingdom, of the Isle of Man, any of the Channel Islands, or of any of the British overseas territories, and their descendants...
began to take an active interest in the land around Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
in the early 18th century. They befriended the Onondagas by giving them guns, which were highly prized.
British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
agent, Sir William Johnson
Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet
Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet was an Anglo-Irish official of the British Empire. As a young man, Johnson came to the Province of New York to manage an estate purchased by his uncle, Admiral Peter Warren, which was located amidst the Mohawk, one of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League...
, acquired 200000 acres (809,372,000 m²) of land in the Mohawk
Mohawk nation
Mohawk are the most easterly tribe of the Iroquois confederation. They call themselves Kanien'gehaga, people of the place of the flint...
country near present day Johnstown, New York
Johnstown (city), New York
Johnstown is a city and the county seat of Fulton County in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2000 Census, the city had population of 8,511. Recent estimates put the figure closer to 8,100. The city was named by its founder, Sir William Johnson after his son John Johnson...
. In 1751, Johnson heard that the French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
intended on securing a military post in the vicinity of the salt springs. He discussed the consequences of that action with the Onondagas and proposed that they grant him rights to all of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
and a two-mile band of land around it. The Onondagas agreed and were paid £350 sterling.
The deed made in 1773 by Sir William Johnson with the Onondaga chiefs was declared invalid in September 1788.
Presbyterian missionaries
In 1776, Presbyterian missionaryMissionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
, Samuel Kirkland
Samuel Kirkland
Rev. Samuel Kirkland was a Presbyterian missionary among the Oneida and Tuscarora people in North America. Kirkland graduated from Princeton in 1765. On September 20, 1769, Samuel Kirkland married Jerusha Bingham in Windham, Connecticut...
, from Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, who had come to Central New York
Central New York
Central New York is a term used to broadly describe the central region of New York State, roughly including the following counties and cities:...
to teach the Seneca
Seneca nation
The Seneca are a group of indigenous people native to North America. They were the nation located farthest to the west within the Six Nations or Iroquois League in New York before the American Revolution. While exact population figures are unknown, approximately 15,000 to 25,000 Seneca live in...
and Oneida people, became interested in the Syracuse "salt lands" and notified General Philip Schuyler
Philip Schuyler
Philip John Schuyler was a general in the American Revolution and a United States Senator from New York. He is usually known as Philip Schuyler, while his son is usually known as Philip J. Schuyler.-Early life:...
about them. At the following session of the Continental Congress
Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution....
, Schuyler observed that the springs could be "improved to advantage" provided someone familiar with salt boiling "could attend to it," however, Congress failed to act on the suggestion and 11 years passed before any action was taken.
Onondaga Salt Springs reservation
In 1788, after the culmination of the Revolutionary War, the State negotiated a treaty with the Onondagas at Fort Schuyler and purchased the land around Onondaga LakeOnondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
from the Onondagas. The treaty, by which the purchase was made, was signed by 23 Indian chiefs and by Governor George Clinton
George Clinton (vice president)
George Clinton was an American soldier and politician, considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was the first Governor of New York, and then the fourth Vice President of the United States , serving under Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. He and John C...
, William Floyd
William Floyd
William Floyd was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a U.S. Representative from New York.-Biography:...
(Lieutenant Governor), Ezra L'Hommedieu
Ezra L'Hommedieu
Ezra L'Hommedieu was an American lawyer and statesman from Southold, New York. He was a delegate for New York to the Continental Congress from 1779 to 1783 and again in 1788...
(State Assembly), Richard Varick
Richard Varick
Richard Varick was an American lawyer and politician. He was born on 15 March 1753 at Hackensack in Bergen County, New Jersey, and he died on 30 July 1831 at Jersey City in Hudson County, New Jersey....
(Attorney General), Samuel Jones
Samuel Jones (chancellor)
Samuel Jones Samuel Jones Samuel Jones (May 26, 1769 New York City - August 9, 1853 Cold Spring Harbor, New York was an American lawyer and politician.-Biography:He was the son of Samuel Jones (1734–1819). He graduated from Columbia University in 1790. He then studied law in his father's office and...
(Chancellor of the State), Egbert Benson
Egbert Benson
Egbert Benson was a lawyer, jurist, politician from Upper Red Hook, New York, and a Founding Father of the United States who represented New York in the Continental Congress, Annapolis Convention, and the United States House of Representatives, and who served as a member of the New York State...
(Attorney General) and Peter Gansevoort, Jr.
Peter Gansevoort
Peter Gansevoort was a Colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He is best known for leading the resistance to Barry St. Leger's Siege of Fort Stanwix in 1777. Gansevoort was also the maternal grandfather of Moby-Dick author Herman Melville.-Early life:He was born...
, all historic names in New York State.
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix was a treaty signed in October 1784 at Fort Stanwix, located in present-day Rome, New York, between the United States and Native Americans...
transferred lands around Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
from the Onondaga Nation to local salt producers with the stipulation that the land would be used to produce salt "for the common use of everyone." As a result of the treaty, the area was designated by the State as the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation.
The salt works were shaped in a crescent in the salt marshes bordering the southeastern shore of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
and covered nearly 1000 acres (4,046,860 m²). By 1872, the Onondaga Salt Lake Reservation occupied 750 acres (3,035,145 m²) and private individuals owned about 200 acres (809,372 m²) with the remainder "waste land." The salt reservation was approximately 9 miles (14.5 km) long by 11 miles (17.7 km) wide.
Early settlers
The springs remained in the possession of the Onondaga Indians until after the Revolutionary War. Some "white" settlers were "in the habit of making small quantities of salt for their personal use." They would boil the salt in "open kettles" suspended over fire from crotched sticks and a cross pole. Two escaped slaves were reported boiling brine in brass kettles and selling the salt to the Onondaga Indians in 1774.While Onondaga County was slowly expanding, much activity was occurring at the salt springs. Men were arriving with their families to make a living from the salt industry. During 1788, early Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
pioneers, Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth was an early settler and leading citizen of Onondaga County, New York where he was the second white man to settle upon his arrival in 1788. He was a veteran of the American Revolution and a salt maker in Onondaga Hollow.-Biography:Asa Danforth was born on July 6, 1746 in Worcester,...
and Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler , one of the original settlers of modern Syracuse, New York, brought his family in the spring of 1788 to what became the hamlet of Onondaga Hollow on the future Seneca Turnpike, south of the city's center today...
were the first to arrive. The third settler arrived in 1789 and by 1792 six families had set up household. They lived and worked in an area east of lower Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
called Salt Point, later known as Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
.
John Danforth, brother of Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth was an early settler and leading citizen of Onondaga County, New York where he was the second white man to settle upon his arrival in 1788. He was a veteran of the American Revolution and a salt maker in Onondaga Hollow.-Biography:Asa Danforth was born on July 6, 1746 in Worcester,...
, followed him to the area and settled in Liverpool, New York
Liverpool, New York
Liverpool is a village located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 2,505 at the 2000 census. The name was adopted from the city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom...
. He was also an early manufacturer of salt on the shores of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
.
Swamp life
In the early days of salt manufacture, great labor was required to boil the salt and the living conditions in the swamp were almost unbearable. The salt springs were located on the south end of the lake which was covered in swamps and bogs for much of the warm months of the year. MalariaMalaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
was rampant and laborers and their families suffered the effects of fevers and nausea.
In 1793 out of a total population of 33 people, 30 were sick and the following year the population had grown to 63, but 23 died that year. Those that made it through the summer and fall seasons, traded salt for food items such as meat, produce, flour, cheese and maple syrup during the winter months. Visitors to Salt Point in the winter arrived via Iroquois
Iroquois
The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...
trails because the settlers did not yet have a system of roads.
Commercial salt production
As time progressed, there was a "growing perception of the ease, profits and other advantages of the manufacture" which led to more extensive operations. The first two men involved in commercial salt production at the salt springs were early settlers, Asa DanforthAsa Danforth
Asa Danforth was an early settler and leading citizen of Onondaga County, New York where he was the second white man to settle upon his arrival in 1788. He was a veteran of the American Revolution and a salt maker in Onondaga Hollow.-Biography:Asa Danforth was born on July 6, 1746 in Worcester,...
and Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler , one of the original settlers of modern Syracuse, New York, brought his family in the spring of 1788 to what became the hamlet of Onondaga Hollow on the future Seneca Turnpike, south of the city's center today...
. Both were Revolutionary War veterans who settled on land they obtained from a grant from the newly formed government of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Both men arrived at the salt springs during 1788 and began salt production in 1789 when Danforth carried a five pail kettle from his residence at Onondaga Hollow to Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. He placed his coat on his head, inverted the kettle, and is said to have "carried it the whole distance without taking it off to rest." Danforth noted that the first time he made salt he used a 15 gallon kettle and in nine hours he had "boiled down" about 30 pounds (13.6 kg) of salt.
Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler
Comfort Tyler , one of the original settlers of modern Syracuse, New York, brought his family in the spring of 1788 to what became the hamlet of Onondaga Hollow on the future Seneca Turnpike, south of the city's center today...
accompanied him, carrying an axe, chain and other necessary implements for the purpose of making a "suitable erection to boil salt." They set up two crotches and suspended their kettle on a chain around a pole between them. After a sufficient quantity was made, they would hide their implements in the bushes until needed again. The two continued the practice for another year until 1790.
By 1798, salt houses were built of logs. Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth
Asa Danforth was an early settler and leading citizen of Onondaga County, New York where he was the second white man to settle upon his arrival in 1788. He was a veteran of the American Revolution and a salt maker in Onondaga Hollow.-Biography:Asa Danforth was born on July 6, 1746 in Worcester,...
was a member of The Federal Company along with Jedediah Sanger, Daniel Keeler, Thomas Hart, Ebenezer Butler, Elisha Alvord and Hezekiah Olcott. The group organized in 1798 and the object of the company was to manufacture salt on a "stupendous scale." They erected a building capable of holding 32 kettles which were set in boiling blocks of four kettles each. Water was then pumped by hand, from a single shallow well, into reservoirs made of "dug out white wood logs" used for pipes."
Before the construction of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
, transportation was difficult. Oxen would travel through marshy land and haul out salt on stone-boats.
Salt salinity
The brine from the reservation was extremely saline and in 1743 one gallon of water could be boiled down to one pound (0.45 kg) of salt. The salinity of water has been measured since the 1800s with a tool called the salometer which shows the percent saturation of salt in brine. The average reading of brine processed during the 1800s at the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation measured between 74 °S through 78 °S. This would indicate the brine was as much as 78 percent saturated with salt.By pumping brine to the surface in the early 1800s, the amount of brine withdrawn from deep groundwater consequently increased. When the outlet of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
was lowered in 1822 for construction of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
, this lowered the water table around the lake and "caused the brine springs to flow at higher rates than before." Over the course of many years, this resulted in freshwater from aquifers throughout Onondaga Creek Valley to recharge which diluted the deepwater brine. The less concentrated brine required more time to evaporate and the total yield was less than a more highly concentrated solution.
In 1875, chemists reported that the strength of the brine was much greater than in 1874 due to two new wells which were sunk in the Syracuse district to replace the older, shallow wells. The shallow wells decreased in strength by 33 percent when pumped to their full capacity in a short period of time.
During 1876, the State was very concerned with the salinity of the brine relative to the cost of the fuel to reduce it to salt. There was increased competition in the salt industry with the strongest rivals in Michigan
Michigan
Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. Throughout the early 1870s, the State had funded the sinking of several new deep wells in order to increase the level of the average salinity of brine taken from the reservation. It was decided that if a sufficient number of deep wells were drilled that would yield a brine of 72 °S average strength, and the weak, shallow wells were abandoned entirely, the yield per ton of coal used would increase to 45 bushels from the average 36 bushels produced in the early 1870s. This realized an overall reduction in the price of coal from .10 cents to .08 cents per bushel of salt.
State regulation
Many squatters who did not lease or own their land were producing salt by the late 1770s and the State wanted to put an end to this illegal practice. Additionally, the State wanted to prevent a private company from forming a salt monopoly. They were also looking for a steady flow of income and salt appeared to be a good revenue source.In 1795, the Onondagas relinquished their common rights to the land around Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
to the State.
The first legislation was passed on April 1, 1797 and soon after, the State began the regulation of salt production.
The New York State Legislature designated a one-mile wide strip of land around the northern half of the lake as the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. Laws were passed to regulate the methods used in the production including boiling and solar evaporation, storage, and sale of the salt. A duty collection was also established at .04 cents for every bushel of salt produced on the reservation. Although there was no charge for the brine itself, the State set the price of salt and required that salt be stored for a fee in government warehouses until it was sold. The State also had the right to certify the quantity and quality of all salt produced. In order to maintain a lease-hold, lessees were required to produce a minimum of ten bushels (56 pounds (25.4 kg) each) of salt per year for "every kettle or pan used" and were prohibited from charging more than .60 cents a bushel. They were also required to pay .04 cents per bushel tax in lieu of rent and an additional .01 for storage.
Salt lots were surveyed and were made available for multi-year leases. In 1797, the State split the land into salt lots, store lots and pasture lots, not to exceed 10 acres (40,468.6 m²) each, which allowed private parties to dig wells and manufacture salt in consideration of payment of tax to the State. The reservation now comprised 15000 acres (60,702,900 m²) and the industry was a "benefit" to the State of New York for the next 100 years.
The reservation reserved the right upon the expiration of the lease to renew for a term of seven years. They also gave the salt processors the ability to buy the property outright at its "true value."
The same act authorized the appointment of a superintendent of the salt springs by the Governor, with the consent of the Council of Appointment which was a powerful Arbitrary Board. Salary was fixed at $800 per year and men appointed to the position were prohibited from having any interest in the salt springs. The first superintendents were James Duane and Robert Yates. William Kirkpatrick
William Kirkpatrick (New York politician)
William Kirkpatrick was a United States Representative from New York.Kirkpatrick was born in Amwell Township, Hunterdon County, New Jersey, he graduated from Princeton College in 1788, studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and commenced practice in Whitestown, Oneida County, New York...
(1769–1832), a medical doctor, moved to Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
in 1806. He subsequently became superintendent of the reservation and served from 1807 through 1810. He was appointed a second time, and served from 1810 through 1831.
Many of the salt boilers did not want state involvement which they "deemed as interference." In order to avoid paying duty, many smuggled large amounts of salt, however, the superintendent "who had almost absolute power" could personally attest to each bushel produced.
The State of New York owned and administered the Onondaga Salt Spring Reservation from 1797 to 1908, leasing out the land to individuals to build boiling blocks, solar sheds and other salt-making facilities. The enterprise consisted of a state-owned network of wells, rigs, pump houses, pipelines, reservoirs and wharves.
The superintendent of the salt springs and his deputies would sink the wells, pump the water and distribute the water among the manufactories. They would also inspect the salt, weigh and brand the packages and collect the State duties.
The original salt works was divided into four areas; Salt Point (later known as Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
), Geddes
Geddes, New York
Geddes is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 17,740 at the 2000 census.The Town of Geddes is west of the neighborhood of Far Westside of Syracuse. The town is a western suburb of Syracuse.- History :...
, Green Point and Liverpool
Liverpool, New York
Liverpool is a village located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 2,505 at the 2000 census. The name was adopted from the city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom...
. The Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation only included the Salt Point and the Geddes works. This meant the Green Point and Liverpool
Liverpool, New York
Liverpool is a village located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 2,505 at the 2000 census. The name was adopted from the city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom...
works were unregulated by the State. Salt boilers in these areas were considered squatters and could be prosecuted, however, the law was not enforced.
Salt Point to Salina
In 1794, James GeddesJames Geddes (engineer)
James Geddes was born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and was a prominent engineer, surveyor, New York State legislator and U.S. Congressman who was instrumental in the planning of the Erie Canal and other canals in the United States...
settled in Geddes
Geddes, New York
Geddes is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 17,740 at the 2000 census.The Town of Geddes is west of the neighborhood of Far Westside of Syracuse. The town is a western suburb of Syracuse.- History :...
on the west shore of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
and by 1796 he erected the first salt manufactory there. The Indians claimed the salt springs west of the lake, but they adopted Geddes into their tribe and allowed him to continue to make salt. Other settlers came and over time, small clusters of log houses were built around the "scattered" salt works along the lake shore.
Geddes was hired by the State in 1797 to survey Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation and lay out the first road in Salt Point. During 1798, Salt Point became the village of Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
. The Surveyor-General, Simeon DeWitt employed Geddes to design the streets. Although Geddes had no formal training in surveying, DeWitt saw great potential in him. Soon Geddes sold his interest in the Geddes salt works to pursue other interests and surveying continued to be an important role for much of his life.
In 1804, an act was passed that directed the sale of 250 acres (1,011,715 m²) of the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation for the purpose of "laying out and improving a road" running from lot 49, Manlius
Manlius (town), New York
Manlius is a town in Onondaga County, east of the city of Syracuse, New York, United States. The population was 32,370 at the 2010 census, making it the third largest suburb in metropolitan Syracuse...
, to lot 38, Onondaga
Onondaga, New York
Onondaga is a town located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the town had a population of 21,063. The town is named after the native Onondaga tribe, part of the Iroquois Confederacy....
, east and west through the reservation. James Geddes
James Geddes (engineer)
James Geddes was born in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and was a prominent engineer, surveyor, New York State legislator and U.S. Congressman who was instrumental in the planning of the Erie Canal and other canals in the United States...
laid out the design of the new road in "rather an irregular form so that as much dry land might be secured as possible." The land, now the central portion of the city of Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
, was purchased by Abraham Walton for $6,650 and soon referred to as the Walton Tract.
Boiling of salt
The Onondaga Indians of the mid-18th century, as well as EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an traders, produced salt by the boiling process. Boiled salt was referred to as fine salt. From the earliest days, boiling was the preferred method of production because it was fast and could be carried out all year long in all kinds of weather. It was also very easy and economical for an individual or small enterprise to get started because it didn't take much room or equipment. In the beginning, the salt miners were either squatters or homesteaders, many were just passing through. They boiled salt as a pastime and used the finished product to barter for other goods.
Most of the production methods employed were very basic. A kettle was hung on a branch which was suspended from two poles over a fire and the water gradually boiled away. Wet salt remained when the water evaporated and was emptied from the kettles and left to dry. Wood was plentiful and was used to maintain the fires.
By 1791, approximately 8,000 bushels of salt per year were produced on the reservation. Each bushel weighed 56 pounds (25.4 kg). An early salt boiler usually produced 600 bushels a year, worth approximately one dollar per bushel.
Boiling blocks
Increasingly, the salt manufactories were larger, commercial enterprises and the total amount of salt produced grew significantly. As the salt operations became more sophisticated, boiling blocks also known as salt blocks were constructed that consisted of large iron kettles "set into stonework and arranged in a double row" the entire length of a large shed-style building constructed for the purpose. A boiling block was an area where men worked in 90 °F heat and high humidity, twelve hours a day, seven days a week, from April until November, boiling brine to obtain salt.The word block was derived from the masonry setting of the kettles. The kettles were hemispherical in form, cast-iron in material, and about 3 foot (0.9144 m) in diameter. They were sunk in walls of brick or gray limestone from 50 to 100 in a row, sheltered in long, narrow houses. The walls were hollow, admitting the circulation of the fire of a furnace and the heat was driven under the kettles by a powerful blower. An Irishman tending the furnace would open the close fitting doors and shovel coal which "would disappear in the ferocious glow of the fire."
The large kettles held 150 gallons and were placed nearest to the firing pit. A long flue
Flue
A flue is a duct, pipe, or chimney for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, furnace, water heater, boiler, or generator to the outdoors. In the United States, they are also known as vents and for boilers as breeching for water heaters and modern furnaces...
ran the entire length of the shed and emptied into a tall chimney at the far end of the building. Smaller kettles, approximately 100 gallons, were placed further away from the fire, closer to the chimney where the heat was less intense.
The pans would "bubble" with milky liquid and the vapor in the air was so dense that the men working next to the kettles appeared "phantom-like hovering in a gauzy perspective."
The boiling blocks contained as many as 80 kettles and operated 24 hours a day. The salt block owners at first burned hundreds of cords of wood per day but as the supply dwindled, 11 to 12 tons of coal per day were needed to sustain the fire. Each kettle would "boil down" every eight hours, or three times every 24 hours. Iron oxides and calcium chloride
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is a salt of calcium and chlorine. It behaves as a typical ionic halide, and is solid at room temperature. Common applications include brine for refrigeration plants, ice and dust control on roads, and desiccation...
that settled in the bottom of the kettle were removed. Salt crystals were skimmed off the top with a long handled scoop and the remaining wet salt was placed into splint ash baskets to drain. A boiling block could produce three to four bushels in five hours.
Each kettle held about 50 gallons of water, which was admitted from the cistern
Cistern
A cistern is a waterproof receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater. Cisterns are distinguished from wells by their waterproof linings...
that contained calcium chloride
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is a salt of calcium and chlorine. It behaves as a typical ionic halide, and is solid at room temperature. Common applications include brine for refrigeration plants, ice and dust control on roads, and desiccation...
, magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
and gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum is a very soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is found in alabaster, a decorative stone used in Ancient Egypt. It is the second softest mineral on the Mohs Hardness Scale...
(sulphate of lime) with a faint trace of peroxide
Peroxide
A peroxide is a compound containing an oxygen–oxygen single bond or the peroxide anion .The O−O group is called the peroxide group or peroxo group. In contrast to oxide ions, the oxygen atoms in the peroxide ion have an oxidation state of −1.The simplest stable peroxide is hydrogen peroxide...
of iron. When the water was boiled, these substances fell to the bottom where they were caught in a simple device known as a bittern pan which is a shallow basin of sheet-iron with an upright handle that projects above the surface of the water. All refuse created from the manufacture of salt was called bittern
Bittern
Bitterns are a classification of birds in the heron family, Ardeidae, a family of wading birds. Species named bitterns tend to be the shorter-necked, often more secretive members of this family...
(magnesium chloride) and was extracted from the water in the form of chalky paste, which was discharged into a waste drain at either side of the kettles. A long pipe for conveying the water, passed between the two rows of kettles, each kettle drawing new supplies of water.
In some cases, the kettles were heated inside steam jackets. The advantage was that all had the same steam pressure and the temperature was uniform. As a result, only one quality of salt was produced.
Salt is also made by the pan process using direct evaporation over fire. Large wrought-iron pans that were 24 feet (7.3 m) wide, 100 feet (30.5 m) long, and 12 inches (30.5 cm) deep were used. The pans were divided into two sections by a loose partition, which allowed the brine to flow slowly from the rear to the front section. A second, smaller pan was set behind and slightly above the first, so that its contents could be siphoned into the front pan. Both were heated by flues from grates before the gases passed into the chimney. The pans were inclined and sloping wooden platforms, called drips, were joined to them on which the salt was drained. The brine was purified with milk of lime, the same as in the kettle process.
The plant was in continuous operation, night and day, for about 14 days with two "runs" being made each month. The State mandated that salt should be stored for 14 days in order to cure properly. The salt was packed into barrels for shipment which were tested by the State Inspector to make sure the salt was pure and properly dried.
By 1872 there were 316 fine salt blocks and four large mills where table salt and dairy salt were produced. The vats and blocks were valued at $4.7 million. At that time, the industry employed 5,000 men and paid an annual tax of over $86,000 to the State of New York. An additional $80,000 was paid for canal tolls and $350,000 for freight on lake, river and canal.
During the first year of regulated salt production in 1797, almost 26,000 bushels of salt were produced and by 1872, that number had risen to nearly nine million bushels of salt.
Erie canal
From the earliest days of the salt industry, the Central New YorkCentral New York
Central New York is a term used to broadly describe the central region of New York State, roughly including the following counties and cities:...
natural waterways including rivers and lakes, served as principal means of transportation. But these water routes were uncertain, difficult, and limited, and portages were slow and expensive. Syracuse salt manufacturers, especially Joshua Forman and James Geddes, were early "propagandists" on behalf of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
project.
The opening of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
in 1825 caused a steep increase in the sale of salt, not only because of the improved and lower cost of transportation, but additionally, the ease of canal shipment caused New York State farms to change from wheat to pork production and curing pork required a lot of salt.
After the War of 1812
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
, it became difficult to obtain salt from abroad and commercial salt production became an important Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
industry. The Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
allowed the bulky and low-priced Onondaga salt to be transported to Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
and beyond via the Great Lakes
Great Lakes
The Great Lakes are a collection of freshwater lakes located in northeastern North America, on the Canada – United States border. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total surface, coming in second by volume...
relatively quickly and inexpensively.
By 1837, the salt manufacturers, who were the main beneficiaries of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
organized and suggested that the tax on a bushel of salt should be increased from .04 cents a bushel to .05 cents per bushel, which enabled eight million dollars of canal debt to be "liquidated." In 1838, taxes were raised to .06 cents per bushel, however, in 1846 they were reduced to .01 per bushel which was "ample" to cover the expenses of the State in connection with the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation.
With the lower freight rates on the canal, the production of salt increased rapidly, reaching a high point of 8,000,000 bushels annually during the Civil War
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
period. Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
and Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
, situated on the canal halfway between Albany
Albany, New York
Albany is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York, the seat of Albany County, and the central city of New York's Capital District. Roughly north of New York City, Albany sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River...
and Buffalo
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo is the second most populous city in the state of New York, after New York City. Located in Western New York on the eastern shores of Lake Erie and at the head of the Niagara River across from Fort Erie, Ontario, Buffalo is the seat of Erie County and the principal city of the...
, and at the junction with the Oswego Canal
Oswego Canal
The Oswego Canal is a canal in the New York State Canal System located in New York, United States. Opened in 1828, it is 23.7 miles in length, and connects the Erie Canal at Three Rivers to Lake Ontario at Oswego...
, which opened in 1838, became important canal ports.
By 1893, the salt industry was in decline and no longer a viable source of tax revenue for the State of New York, however, the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation contributed over two million dollars toward the construction of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
and Barge Canal.
Although the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
was known by many names, those in Syracuse called it "the ditch that salt built."
Salt potatoes
Salt potatoesSalt potatoes
Salt potatoes are a regional dish of Syracuse, New York, typically served in the summer when the young potatoes are first harvested. They are a staple food at fairs and barbecues...
originated in Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
and once comprised the bulk of a salt worker's daily diet. During the 19th century, Irish salt miners would bring a bag of small, unpeeled, substandard potatoes to work each day. Come lunch time, they boiled the potatoes in the "free-flowing" salt brine.
By the early 20th century, the potatoes were a Central New York
Central New York
Central New York is a term used to broadly describe the central region of New York State, roughly including the following counties and cities:...
favorite and local entrepreneur, John Hinerwadel, started serving them as a side "at his famous clambakes." He later began packaging five-pound bags of potatoes along with a 12-ounce box of salt and labeled them "Hinerwadel's Famous Original Salt Potatoes." The brand is still available in the market today.
Civil war
During the Civil WarAmerican Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, salt production in Syracuse "secured the North's salt supply." At the same time, Northern forces were in control of salt mines in Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
and Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
, which meant southerners could not buy salt at any price. The salt shortage is believed to be one of the reasons the South lost the war. Salt produced on the reservation was considered so critical during the Civil War
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
that the salt workers were exempted from both jury duty
Jury duty
Jury duty is service as a juror in a legal proceeding. When a person is called for jury duty in the United States, that service is usually not optional: one must attend or face strict penalties. Employers are not allowed to fire an employee simply for being called to jury duty...
and military conscription in the mid-1860s.
Solar evaporation
By the 1820s, the local supply of wood had been exhausted and the cost of importing coalCoal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
from Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
was adding exorbitant costs to the production of Onondaga salt. Many salt producers began to switch operation from boiling their salt to the solar evaporation method by the mid-19th century.
The idea of solar salt production was first conceived in 1821 by Judge Joshua Forman, who then resided in Syracuse and is considered the founder of the city. Together, with Isaiah Townsend, of Albany, New York
Albany, New York
Albany is the capital city of the U.S. state of New York, the seat of Albany County, and the central city of New York's Capital District. Roughly north of New York City, Albany sits on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River...
, he traveled to New Bedford, Massachusetts
New Bedford, Massachusetts
New Bedford is a city in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States, located south of Boston, southeast of Providence, Rhode Island, and about east of Fall River. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 95,072, making it the sixth-largest city in Massachusetts...
, for the purpose of examining salt works that had been erected there. Forman met there with Stephen Smith, "with whom he counseled upon the subject."
After Forman discussed the strength of the water in Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
and its purity and abundance, Smith consented to "embark in the enterprise of erecting similar works" in Syracuse. Smith, together with William Rotch, Jr., Samuel Rodman and James Arnold of New Bedford, formed the Onondaga Salt Company. Smith was the controlling agent and Henry Gifford was superintendent of the construction.
Forman traveled to Albany subsequent to the formation of the company and "procured the passage of a law by the Legislature, authorizing the company to take possession of the grounds and erect the necessary works." He later "applied" to Henry Eckford, a "celebrated" naval architect of New York, who consented, and with other local businessmen, established The Syracuse Salt Company. Eckford was then owner of the Walton Tract, which encompassed a large section of downtown Syracuse. Forman was appointed as agent of the company and Matthew L. Davis, secretary.
During that period, the Salt Springs were called the Old Federal Springs. The water was pumped by hand labor by men "perched on high stagings, and collected into rude reservoirs for distribution."
The two companies were formed immediatedly and set about the execution of their plans. The first thing done was to cut away the trees and clear the grounds in the area between the "Genesee turnpike" and the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
. This was an "almost impassable swamp" but clearing the land was preparatory to the erection of the first salt vats. The two companies, at their joint expense, erected the "first great reservoir, pumps and aqueducts at Salina" for the purpose of securing a greater supply of water. The machinery was propelled by surplus water from a branch of the canal and the "starting point" for the vats was just north of Church Street.
After the two works were "fairly under way," the Onondaga Salt Company broke ground west of Onondaga Creek
Onondaga Creek
Onondaga Creek is a major tributary of Onondaga Lake which is located in Onondaga County, New York. The headwaters of the creek originate south of the city of Syracuse near the hamlet of Vesper, New York...
, near the dwelling subsequently occupied by Joseph Savage, where "the first growth of trees was still standing" and yielded 100 cords of wood per acre.
The building of vats "was prosecuted with great diligence and energy" and approximately 2000000 feet (609,600 m) of lumber was consumed annually for a period of several years in order to construct the vats.
By 1826, Gifford's salt works covered 20 acres (80,937.2 m²) on ground on "private account;" however, he was unable to procure water for three years.
For the first 44 years of salt production, only boiled salt was manufactured; however, by 1841, a grand total of 220,247 barrels of solar salt was produced annually. This number steadily increased for the next 40 years.
That same year, the Legislature ruled that all salt manufacturers could lease their land for 30 years in an attempt to reduce the number of lawsuits that had resulted by "virtue of the question of priority of leases."
The production of salt by solar evaporation, also known as solar salt, required brine of a higher concentration than was available from the local salt springs. Shallow wells were constructed in an attempt to find more concentrated brine. Solar evaporation was also a slower method and wet weather, which was common in the area, could delay the process, however, it did prove to be cost effective and by 1864, solar reduction had become the primary means of salt production. Large areas of the lake shore were set aside for salt fields. One disadvantage was that solar salt could only be produced during the warmer months between April and early November.
The solar method was performed in three phases ;
- Brine was pumped through log pipes into vats in deep rooms where the iron oxides and "casox" settled to the bottom. The tanks in these rooms averaged 18 feet (5.5 m) by 16 feet (4.9 m) by 8 inches (20.3 cm) through 12 inches (30.5 cm) deep and were from 200 feet (61 m) to 2000 feet (609.6 m) in length, depending on the size of the yard. The vats were made out of pine plank. This process took two weeks.
- The brine then passed to the salt rooms also known as lime rooms, through a series of shallow vats 10 inches (25.4 cm) deep where gypsumGypsumGypsum is a very soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is found in alabaster, a decorative stone used in Ancient Egypt. It is the second softest mineral on the Mohs Hardness Scale...
(sulphate of lime) settled to the bottom and the brine was reduced through further evaporation. This process took seven days. During this period the salt "shimmered and glowed" under the sun, and it was noted that the vats looked like "hundreds of mirrors."
- The concentrated brine was then transferred into shallow wooden trays that were 3 inches (7.6 cm) deep, commonly referred to as covers because they had a movable roof-like structure that was used to cover the brine during rain and at night. The roof was low and steep and moved on wheels over a steel track. The "motion of the covers seen from a distance seemed to make the earth ripple." A loud bell was rung at the first sign of inclement weather and men, women and children "rushed out of shanties into the salt yards to push the covers over the vats." Some of the salt yards contained as many as 15,000 covers. The brine was left open and exposed and by the end of the seventh day, crystals of coarse salt appeared on the surface of the vats, sometimes as thick as 0.5 inches (1.3 cm). The salt was allowed to accumulate until it was half the depth of the vat.
Once salt crystals formed, they were broken apart and pushed to the edge of the cover and the crystallized salt was transferred to carts for transport to the State storage warehouses where it was raked together and placed into tubs with perforated bottoms drained for 14 days before being packed in barrels for the market. The salt was "harvested" approximately three times a season.
A local news reporter in 1878 noted that the "gray that from a distance had seemed to overspread the ground was not mist, but acres and acres of box-like vats, in which the brine was evaporating." The vats and roofs were made of unpainted timber, which the weather had stained gray. "There was nothing to indicate that thousands of men were employed on the ground in the salt business, an impressive air of quietude and inaction possessing this scene."
By 1900, there were over 43,000 salt covers with an evaporating surface of over 12000000 square feet (1,114,836.5 m²). During a good season, from three to four million bushels of salt were produced.
All operations on the salt fields were suspended during the colder months, from early December until March 1 each year. Hence, the average "working" year was only 70 days long, as there was only a short timeframe the weather was warm and dry enough for salt to evaporate by the solar process.
Salt wells
The first salt brine used in early production came from the naturally occurring springs and shallow wells dug into swampy land on the lake shore. In 1806, the first "deep well" was sunk and was recorded at a depth of 30 feet (9.1 m). The brine was pumped to the surface with hand pumps, which could produce about 40 gallons per minute.Beginning in 1838, the State authorized the drilling of deep wells at several locations around the lake to locate the source of the brine; however, none of the wells that were drilled were able to pinpoint the source.
By 1878, the wells were 300 feet (91.4 m) to 450 feet (137.2 m) deep. When the "cemented earth" was pierced by a drill, the salt-water rose to within 18 feet (5.5 m) of the surface and was raised the remainder of the way by small pumps driven by steam. That year, it was estimated that a total of over 200 wells had been sunk since 1797, at a cost of $750,000 and a yield of salt that was nearly 300 million bushels, or enough to cover a surface of 120000000 square feet (11,148,364.8 m²) with solid salt 12 inches (30.5 cm) deep. In 1878, 38 wells were in use and seven million bushels were produced annually.
The wells were enclosed in well "houses" that had "dwarfed towers." They were not simple excavations, like garden-wells and instead, were narrow and deep. The brine was obtained by boring wells 8 inches (20.3 cm) to 10 inches (25.4 cm) in diameter which were lined with iron casings to eliminate contamination from surface water. The iron casings were driven in lengths of 18 feet (5.5 m) to the depths of the brine. When the length was driven, another would be screwed to it, and that would be forced down by pressure from above. Length after length was added, until a continuous pipe of 300 feet (91.4 m) or 400 feet (121.9 m) was formed and the salt water "bubbled up."
Salt pumps
The State operated water and steam powered pump rooms in each of the four districts; GeddesGeddes, New York
Geddes is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 17,740 at the 2000 census.The Town of Geddes is west of the neighborhood of Far Westside of Syracuse. The town is a western suburb of Syracuse.- History :...
, Liverpool
Liverpool, New York
Liverpool is a village located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 2,505 at the 2000 census. The name was adopted from the city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom...
, Salina
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
and Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
. The pumps forced brine water from the lake into tall reservoirs.
The brine was raised by pumps with an endless wire rope chain that was powered by an engine. When the brine reached the surface, it had a slightly "turbid appearance." This was the result of the brine mixing with clay and fine sand raised from the well, together with small bubbles of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
. The brine also contained ferrous carbonate which was held in the solution by carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
. As the carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
escaped, the ferrous salt absorbed oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
from the air and the hydrated ferric oxide separated as a "yellowish red turbidity," which settled after a short period, leaving behind a clear brine.
Brine was pumped from the salt wells into small settling tanks and from there it was channeled through wooden log pipes to a central distribution tank which was set at an elevation higher than the boiling blocks so that flow could be controlled by gravity. If the central storage tank was lower than some of the boiling blocks or solar fields, the brine would have to be pumped into a large reservoir located at the top of an 80 feet (24.4 m) tower-like structure situated on adjacent high ground. From this tower the brine was conducted through wooden pipes by its own gravity to the various manufactories on the reservation.
The pump was driven by an overshot water wheel which was 22 feet (6.7 m) in diameter. A back-up steam pump was close by in case of break-down. The pump operated from the beginning of April to late November or early December, depending on weather conditions as the wheel could not operate once the canal froze. Boiled salt could be produced each year only as long as the water wheel turned.
In the 1890s, a new system was developed for pumping the brine from deep wells using compressed air. This method produced about 150-160 gallons of brine per minute from wells that were 100 feet (30.5 m) deep.
Log pipes
Wood marketing flourished in the city and the forest was cleared to supply fuel for local salt boiling, lumber for new homes and boat building. The Pepperidge (thysa sylvatica)Tupelo
The tupelo , black gum, or pepperidge tree, genus Nyssa , is a small genus of about 9 to 11 species of trees with alternate, simple leaves...
(also known as Tupelo) tree was particularly adapted for "brine-pipe" use in the salt industry were so valuable and in such high demand, the tree is now virtually extinct within a radius of 10 miles (16.1 km) of the city.
The pipes were examined in 1940 by Harry P. Brown, professor of wood technology at the State College of Forestry
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry
The State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry is an American specialized doctoral-granting institution located in the University Hill neighborhood of Syracuse, New York, immediately adjacent to Syracuse University...
in Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
who determined that the brine pipes were constructed from both thysa sylvatica or thysa aquatica, also known as Tupelo
Tupelo
The tupelo , black gum, or pepperidge tree, genus Nyssa , is a small genus of about 9 to 11 species of trees with alternate, simple leaves...
and grown in the south. He "regarded it as interesting" that so much wood was available in the area, most of which was from the native northern tree, "for it is of scattered growth, its seed spread by birds."
The pipes were made from logs, commonly known as elm logs, which were hollowed out and the end was inserted into another log pipe and bound by "iron ribbons." There were 50 miles of pipes that could be seen all over the reservation which "look like gray snakes as they follow the undulations of the ground, creeping up the walls of buildings and bridges of trestle work." The pipes were always laid above ground and were "said to be very durable."
Packaging
Both solar salt and block salt were coarse-grained when they left the reservation. The solar salt was put to use in preserving pork and "such base purposes" and a large proportion of the block salt was refined for table salt.The power from the main engine was carried to other parts of the building by wheels, shafts and leather bands. In one room, the finished product was washed, for "despite the attention it has received" in the boiling houses, some of the chlorides of calcium, magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
and gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum is a very soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is found in alabaster, a decorative stone used in Ancient Egypt. It is the second softest mineral on the Mohs Hardness Scale...
remained behind. The salt was placed into a shallow tube partly filled with water, where it was turned over and over and up and down by corkscrew-like shafts until every particle of alloy was separated. The refuse was sold by the refiners to farmers for agricultural purposes at $1.50 a ton.
After the salt had been washed it was dried in long, iron tubular cylinders, which revolved over furnaces in a constant motion until the salt was as parched and as hot as desert sand, the vapor parsing from it through steam vents. It was next carried upstairs by an endless chain of small buckets. The buckets loaded and unloaded themselves automatically. On the upper floors, the grinding was done. Salt intended for dairy purposes was ground between granite rollers and that intended for table use was put through an ordinary flouring mill.
A number of girls dressed in "showy prints" and with their hair tied up in "variegated kerchiefs", scooped the salt up into small cotton bags and sewed them up with "astonishing speed." The bags were then packed in barrels and shipped to market.
An analysis of the quality of the salt in 1876 made by the Butter and Cheese Exchange reported that the Syracuse dairy salt was "superior to all others" and had a lower level of total impurities. There had been a long-standing "prejudice" by dairymen against Onondaga salt because of perceived impurities which were proven false.
Salt producers
In 1850, famous actress Jenny Lind made a professional visit to SyracuseSyracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
, appearing in a concert at the National Theater. She ended up staying an extra day in order to visit the salt fields. An enterprising marketer was quick to appreciate the advertising possibilities of the visit and history records show that a short time later, the Jenny Lind brand of salt was placed on the market.
In 1860, the local manufacturers united and formed the Salt Company of Onondaga. The property was valued at $3,200,000.
During 1874, Ashton Salt Mill was operating in the town of Geddes
Geddes, New York
Geddes is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 17,740 at the 2000 census.The Town of Geddes is west of the neighborhood of Far Westside of Syracuse. The town is a western suburb of Syracuse.- History :...
, on the western edge of the city and Saginaw Salt Works was located southwest of the city in the town of Onondaga
Onondaga, New York
Onondaga is a town located in Onondaga County, New York, United States. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the town had a population of 21,063. The town is named after the native Onondaga tribe, part of the Iroquois Confederacy....
. That same year, several other salt producers were operating within the city limits including; G. A. Porter & Company, Haskin's Salt Mill and J. W. Barker & Company.
In 1878, Geddes was the home of Western Coarse Salt Company, Turk's Island Coarse Salt Company, Geddes Coarse Salt Company, Union Coarse Salt Company, Cape Cod Coarse Salt Company, W. & D. Kirkpatrick of No. 7 Wieting Block, Draper & Porter, W. B. Boyd, Mrs. S. O. Ely and J. F. Paige.
During 1879, the city directory
City directory
A city directory is a listing of residents, streets, businesses, organizations or institutions, giving their location in a city. Antedating telephone directories, they have been in use for centuries....
had a list of salt manufacturers Excelsior Dairy Salt Company located at 1 Syracuse Savings Bank Building, McChesney & Caten at 81 East Water, N. Y. S. Salt Springs at 58 North Salina, Salt Springs Solar Coarse Salt Company of 6 Wieting Block and Star Salt Mills at 8 North West. There were also individuals listed such as Robert Young of Green Point Road, Samuel H. Burritt and George A. Porter, both of Basin near Court Street.
In 1893, The American Dairy Salt Company, Ltd. had their general office at No. 1 Clinton Block. The Onondaga Coarse Salt Association were manufacturers of coarse or solar salt including; dairy, table, common, fine and fertilizing salts. By 1884, Thomas Gale was the president, J. W. Barker was secretary and Thomas Malloy was treasurer. In 1893, Thomas K. Gale still was president, Thomas Malloy was the receiver and treasurer, W. H. H. Gere was vice-president and Lewis A. Hawley was recording secretary. In 1910, the company was shipping salt to Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
.
Revenue and expenses
Revenue derived from the manufacture of salt was paid to the New York State Treasury and credited to the general fund.In 1874 the total amount of salt produced was 6,029,300 bushels and duty paid was $60,293. By 1875, the number rose to 7,179,446 bushels and duty paid was $71,794. During that same period, the expenses amounted to $65,972 which meant total revenue was $66,115.
Solvay process
In 1888, the Solvay Process CompanySolvay Process Company
The Solvay Process Company was a pioneer chemical industry of the United States in the manufacture of soda ash and a major employer in Central New York...
established a chemical plant along the southern shore of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
to manufacture soda ash from the halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
and limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
found within the bedrock
Bedrock
In stratigraphy, bedrock is the native consolidated rock underlying the surface of a terrestrial planet, usually the Earth. Above the bedrock is usually an area of broken and weathered unconsolidated rock in the basal subsoil...
. The concentration from the springs and wells in the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation gradually diminished over the years and this forced the company to seek additional sources of brine.
Salt wells that tapped into halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
(common salt) beds in the local Salina shale near Tully, New York
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
, 15 miles south of the city were developed in the 19th century. The north flowing brine from Tully, New York
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
was the source of salt for the "salty springs" found along the shoreline of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
.
The company drilled several deep test holes in the area south of Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
and eventually encountered halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
deposits at a depth of 1216 feet (370.6 m) below land surface in the southern end of Tully valley
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
. More than 120 wells were drilled into four halite beds on the east and west flanks of the southern part of the valley from 1890 through 1986. The brine withdrawn from the Tully valley
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
brinefield over a 96-year period resulted in the extraction of more than 96 million tons of salt.
Lake water level
The outlet of Onondaga LakeOnondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
was lowered in 1822 for construction of the Erie Canal
Erie Canal
The Erie Canal is a waterway in New York that runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie, completing a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of...
which permanently lowered the water table around the lake.
By 1882, the lake's water level was lowered after the outlet to the Seneca River
Seneca River (New York)
The Seneca River in central New York flows from west to east, from Seneca Lake, through the Montezuma Marsh at the north end of Cayuga Lake to the Seneca's confluence with the Oneida and Oswego rivers at the Three Rivers area north of Syracuse. Much of the river has been channelized to form part...
was dredged. As a result, the low lying swampy area the northern end of downtown Syracuse was drained and filled. The wetlands were eliminated, which had the positive effect of greatly reducing the threat of malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
for residents of the growing city.
The water level in Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
was again raised when the Barge Canal was completed in 1918.
Salt water for cooling
From the mid-19th century through the early 20th century, many companies that did not produce salt were also established in the Onondaga Creek Valley. Several of these businesses dug or drilled wells into the underlying sand and gravel aquifers to obtain water for cooling purposes for use in production of goods such as beer and dairy products as well as storage of perishable goods. The wells were also used to regulate temperatures in office and storage buildings.The water obtained from these wells had a nearly constant temperature of 50–52 °F and ranged in chemical character from saline to brine. The water later was discharged and drained back into Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
. Although this process did not utilize the salt resource, it took saline water from the ground-water system and released it into freshwater streams. Ultimately, this increased the salinity of the surface-water system.
The use of ground water for cooling purposes in the area declined and eventually ceased with the advent of air conditioning
Air conditioning
An air conditioner is a home appliance, system, or mechanism designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area. The cooling is done using a simple refrigeration cycle...
. It is currently unknown the total amount of salt withdrawn from the aquifer system, nor the exact number of wells or their locations. The presence of these wells is of concern because the old and decaying well casings could "provide a hydraulic connection between the brine-bearing sand and gravel aquifers and the surface-water system."
Western competition
After the Civil WarCivil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
, the salt industry began to decline. By 1876, there was increased competition in the industry with the strongest rivals in Michigan
Michigan
Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. Every effort possible was made to improve the brine in order to put Onondaga salt in a position to "cope" with its new rivals and increase the revenue of the state.
Throughout the early 1870s, the State had taken several steps such as sinking new deep wells in order to increase the average salinity of brine taken from the reservation, thereby decreasing the amount paid for the coal used to reduce it to salt and make it more competitive in the market.
The State also experimented with several methods to more efficiently remove escaping steam from the boiling brine without any satisfactory results. Chemists spent seven years and over $100,000 in an attempt to use "superheated" steam passed through steam-pipes as well as heated air applied in various ways to assist the evaporation in the kettles and to save fuel. Patent furnaces and grates were also tried without sufficient results to pay for the extra expense.
The Godrich steam pan was built at great expense but abandoned as a failure. Two of the devices did produce good results including the Godrich plan with "hanging tubes" and the Gilson cylinders, although fuel saving was not realized which made "general adoption" out of the question.
In November 1882, an experimental well was sunk in Wyoming County, New York
Wyoming County, New York
Wyoming County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. At the 2010 census, the population was 42,155. The county seat is Warsaw. The name is from a modified Delaware Indian word meaning "broad bottom lands"...
at a depth of 1350 feet (411.5 m). This revealed a "wide extension" of the Wyoming salt basin. The salt was "exceedingly pure and in great quantity." The brine pumped was nearly 33 percent stronger than that of the Syracuse salt basin. Both localities were part of the Onondaga-Formation
Onondaga (geological formation)
The Onondaga Formation is a group of hard limestones and dolostones of Devonian age that form an important geographic feature in some areas in which it outcrops, in others; especially its Southern Ontario portion, the formation can be less prominent as a local surface feature.In upstate New York...
. The Wyoming deposits were south of Rochester
Rochester, New York
Rochester is a city in Monroe County, New York, south of Lake Ontario in the United States. Known as The World's Image Centre, it was also once known as The Flour City, and more recently as The Flower City...
and in the neighborhood of Warsaw
Warsaw (village), New York
Warsaw is a village in Wyoming County, New York in the USA. It is the county seat of Wyoming County and lies inside the Town of Warsaw. The village of Warsaw is near the center of the town in a valley. The population was 3,814 at the 2000 census. A branch of Genesee Community College is in Warsaw.-...
and Batavia in Western New York
Western New York
Western New York is the westernmost region of the state of New York. It includes the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Niagara Falls, the surrounding suburbs, as well as the outlying rural areas of the Great Lakes lowlands, the Genesee Valley, and the Southern Tier. Some historians, scholars and others...
.
During March 1885, a vein of salt was discovered near Phelps
Phelps (village), New York
Phelps is a village in Ontario County, New York, USA. The population was 1,969 at the 2000 census. The village is named after an original proprietor, Oliver Phelps....
while an oil company was boring for petroleum
Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling...
near the town 20 feet (6.1 m) thick. According to a newsarticle; "The news of the discovery went like wildfire through the section and property owners were elated." Soon after, a company of wealthy citizens in Phelps
Phelps (village), New York
Phelps is a village in Ontario County, New York, USA. The population was 1,969 at the 2000 census. The village is named after an original proprietor, Oliver Phelps....
and Clifton Springs
Clifton Springs, New York
Clifton Springs is a village located in Ontario County, New York, United States. The population was 2,223 at the 2000 census. The village takes its name from local mineral springs....
was formed to manage the mines. Pumps were immediately set up and a large manufactory was constructed during the summer of 1885.
Additionally, many new salt reserves were found out west in Wyoming
Wyoming
Wyoming is a state in the mountain region of the Western United States. The western two thirds of the state is covered mostly with the mountain ranges and rangelands in the foothills of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, while the eastern third of the state is high elevation prairie known as the High...
and Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
.
End of production
By 1900, in addition to competition from salt producers out west, the ever increasing costs for both the manufacture and transport of the finished product, plus the discovery that the salt salinity in Onondaga LakeOnondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
was weakening, contributed to the end of the salt industry in Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
.
During 1908, the State of New York auctioned off its pipelines, pumping machinery and reservoirs to private industry. The Salt Springs Superintendent, who reported to the New York State Legislature, was let go in 1914. After salt production was discontinued by the State, it fell into the hands of private industry, although some of the land was still owned by the government.
The demise of the salt industry, despite its importance for so many decades, surprisingly was hardly noticed by residents of the city. The economy was booming and several features including the central location of Syracuse combined with its railroads and canals, access to raw materials and the presence of gypsum, brine, and limestone, and a large labor supply, all combined to attract varied industries. Eventually, the acreage devoted to salt works became more valuable as factory sites and the old industry was "forced out."
By 1920, the majority of salt produced was used to pack fish and in ceramic production at local companies such as Syracuse China
Syracuse China
Syracuse China Corporation, located in Syracuse, New York, was a manufacturer of fine china. Founded in 1871 as Onondaga Pottery Company in the town of Geddes, New York, the company initially produced earthenware...
. Salt was also used to de-ice the local railroad and trolley tracks during the winter months. Additionally, the salt brine was in demand by the chemical companies such as Solvay Process Company
Solvay Process Company
The Solvay Process Company was a pioneer chemical industry of the United States in the manufacture of soda ash and a major employer in Central New York...
that were gradually replacing the salt manufacturers along the shores of Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
.
In 1922, a wind storm left much of the remaining salt yards in ruin. Some repairs were made and the industry struggled along until August 1926, when the last nine salt workers drew the final batch of brine and the salt industry closed its doors. The Onondaga Coarse Salt Company, the last manufacturer, had been in business for 125 years.
With the discovery of large deposits of natural sodium carbonate Trona
Trona
Trona ; Na3•2H2O is an evaporite mineral. It is mined as the primary source of sodium carbonate in the United States, where it has replaced the Solvay process used in most of the rest of the world for sodium carbonate production.- Etymology :The word "trona" comes to English by way of either...
in 1938, near Green River
Green River (Utah)
The Green River, located in the western United States, is the chief tributary of the Colorado River. The watershed of the river, known as the Green River Basin, covers parts of Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. The Green River is long, beginning in the Wind River Mountains of Wyoming and flowing...
in Wyoming
Wyoming
Wyoming is a state in the mountain region of the Western United States. The western two thirds of the state is covered mostly with the mountain ranges and rangelands in the foothills of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, while the eastern third of the state is high elevation prairie known as the High...
, the Solvay process
Solvay process
The Solvay process, also referred to as the ammonia-soda process, is the major industrial process for the production of soda ash . The ammonia-soda process was developed into its modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s...
became uneconomical and the Solvay Process Company
Solvay Process Company
The Solvay Process Company was a pioneer chemical industry of the United States in the manufacture of soda ash and a major employer in Central New York...
plant closed permanently in 1985. There are no Solvay plants in operation now in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
; however, throughout the rest of the world the Solvay process
Solvay process
The Solvay process, also referred to as the ammonia-soda process, is the major industrial process for the production of soda ash . The ammonia-soda process was developed into its modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s...
remains the major source of soda ash.
The closing of the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation in the early 20th century and the end to mining brine
Brine
Brine is water, saturated or nearly saturated with salt .Brine is used to preserve vegetables, fruit, fish, and meat, in a process known as brining . Brine is also commonly used to age Halloumi and Feta cheeses, or for pickling foodstuffs, as a means of preserving them...
in the southern part of the Tully valley
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
in the late 20th century marked the final chapter of salt mining in the Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
region, but groundwater flowing along the southeastern shore of Onondaga lake
Onondaga Lake
Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums. Although it is near the Finger...
in Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...
still allows salty water from a 1000 feet (304.8 m) below the southern Tully valley
Tully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
to flow by gravity feeding salt springs around the lake where the Salina shale contains no halite
Halite
Halite , commonly known as rock salt, is the mineral form of sodium chloride . Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on the amount and type of impurities...
beds.
Salt city
The rapid development of this industry in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the nicknaming of Syracuse as "the Salt City." From 1797 through 1917, the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation produced more than 11.5 million tons of "finished" salt. Additionally, the withdrawal of brine from the Tully valleyTully (town), New York
Tully is a town in Onondaga County, New York, USA. The population of the town was 2,709 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. The town is on the county's south border, south of Syracuse....
brinefield area by Solvay Process Company
Solvay Process Company
The Solvay Process Company was a pioneer chemical industry of the United States in the manufacture of soda ash and a major employer in Central New York...
over a 96-year period resulted in the removal of more than 96 million tons of salt.
The days of salt production in Syracuse are long over, however, the city still honors the industry in names like Salina Street which is the main street through downtown, Solar Street, Salt Springs Road and the town of Salina, New York
Salina, New York
Salina is a town in Onondaga County, New York, United States. The population was 33,290 at the 2000 census. The name of the town is derived from the Latin word for "salt."...
. There is also a neighborhood enclave in Syracuse named Salt Springs
Salt Springs, Syracuse
Salt Springs is a Syracuse, New York neighborhood, located in the northeastern corner of the city. It corresponds to Onondaga County Census Tract xx.-Borders:Salt Springs is one of the 26 officially recognized neighborhoods of Syracuse, New York...
.
Salt museum and parks
The abandoned Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation became a dumping ground in the early 20th century, however, the Great DepressionGreat Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
brought new life to the area when Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt turned the State land over to Onondaga County during the New Deal
New Deal
The New Deal was a series of economic programs implemented in the United States between 1933 and 1936. They were passed by the U.S. Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were Roosevelt's responses to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call...
era. Funding from the Work relief program, and the organization of the Onondaga County Emergency Work Bureau helped the county convert the area into Long Branch Park
Long Branch Park
Long Branch Park is a public park in Onondaga County outside of Syracuse, New York, located in the town of Liverpool on Long Branch Road near NYS Route 370 and John Glenn Boulevard...
during the early 1930s.
Included in the project was the construction of the Salt Museum which was built around a "still standing" boiling block chimney. The building stands on the site of the Sampson Jaqueth Salt Manufactory which was erected in 1856. One-third of the original chimney survives. The museum opened in 1933 and is still in operation. The museum is operated by Onondaga County Parks Department and is closed during the winter months.
News articles
External links
- Salt Production in Syracuse, New York- United States Geological Services, November 2000
- The Onondaga New York Salt Works (1654 - 1926) - Science Tribune: Bell, Valerie Jackson, October 1998
- http://students.sunyocc.edu/central.aspx?menu=542&id=13388History of Onondaga Lake - Onondaga Community CollegeOnondaga Community CollegeOnondaga Community College is an accredited two-year educational institution that services Onondaga County, New York at three campuses. Onondaga Community College is a college of the State University of New York system and one of 30 locally sponsored community colleges throughout New York...
, 2010]