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Samnite (gladiator type)
Encyclopedia
A Samnite was a Roman
gladiator
who fought with equipment styled on that of a warrior from Samnium
: a short sword (gladius
), a rectangular shield (scutum
), a greave
(ocrea), and a helmet. Warriors armed in such a way were the earliest gladiators in the Roman games
. They appeared in Rome shortly after the defeat of Samnium in the 4th century BC, apparently adopted from the victory celebrations of Rome's allies in Campania
. By arming low-status gladiators in the manner of a defeated foe, Romans mocked the Samnites and appropriated martial elements of their culture.
Samnites were quite popular during the period of Roman Republic
. Eventually, other gladiator types joined the roster, such as the Gaul
and the Thracian
. Under the reign of Emperor Augustus
, Samnium became an ally and integral part of the Roman Empire
(all Italians had by this point gained Roman citizenship
). Around this time, the Samnite gladiator fell out of favour, probably because insulting the Samnites was no longer seen as acceptable behaviour. The Samnite was replaced by similarly armed gladiators, including the hoplomachus
and the secutor
.
, an area in the southern Apennine Mountains
of the Italian peninsula that Rome
subdued in the 4th century BC. Rome fought three wars with Samnium from 343 to 290 BC. Livy
(9.40) relates that after Rome defeated Samnium and Molise
in 308 BC, Rome's allies, the Campanians
, confiscated Samnite arms and armour as spoils of war. They outfitted ceremonial warriors with the equipment and staged mock combats at their celebratory banquets:
Rome's own gladiatorial contests began some 40 years later. The Samnite, borrowed from the Campanians, was the earliest of the gladiator types and the model upon which later classes were based. The Samnite gladiators were also the first of at least three gladiator classes (list of Roman gladiator types) to be based on ethnic
antecedents; other examples were the Gauls
and the Thracians
. These gladiators fought with the signature war equipment and in the martial style of ethnic groups who had been conquered by Rome, thus appropriating their source culture for the mocking milieu of the Roman games
. Gladiators who fought as any particular type did not necessarily hail from that ethnic background; the tombstone of a gladiator named Thelyphus is careful to point out that he fought as a Samnite but was really a Thracian.
Samnite gladiators appear quite frequently in Roman art
work. Other gladiator classes were added to the roster over the years, and some of these used similar gear, especially plumed helmets, adding to the difficulty of positively identifying Samnites. Roman spectators perceived gladiators as more masculine and honourable if they were more heavily armed and armoured. Thus, the Samnite, one of the heavier types, was an impressive sight with a fierce appearance. The Samnite may have been the first gladiator to be pitted against the retiarius
, a gladiator who fought with the gear of a fisherman and who was viewed as effeminate due to his light armaments. Accordingly, some retiarii may have trained as Samnites to improve their status. Gladiators who fought with a rectangular shield and sword, such as the provocator, were said to be "armed in the Samnite manner". Such gladiators remained popular until the end of the gladiatorial games.
Samnite gladiators appear often in Roman texts (they are the gladiators most often mentioned in Roman writings) until the early Imperial period
. A likely possibility is that the Samnite went out of favour during the reign of Augustus
when Samnium became an ally of Rome. As the real Samnites became fully integrated into Roman society, the gladiator based upon them was retired. At this time, similar classes, the hoplomachus
, murmillo
, and the secutor
first appear in texts. It seems that the Samnite became specialized into these classes, although the means by which this happened is unclear. The Samnite and its successors all fought with a footsoldier's sword and shield. The only clear distinguishing characteristics are that the secutor almost exclusively fought the net-and-trident-wielding retiarius, and the hoplomachus
used a taller shield.
), a rectangular shield (scutum (shield)
), a greave
(ocrea), and a helmet. The helmet had a crest, a rim, a visor, and a plume (galea); this last element gave "an imposing appearance". The Samnite's greave was worn on the left leg and reached to just below the knee. It was made of leather and sometimes had a metal rim. He also wore an ankleband on the right ankle. The Samnite's sword arm was protected by an arm guard (manica
); this became a common piece of equipment for most gladiators. The sword was the Samnite's most common weapon (the word gladiator comes from the Latin gladius, "sword"), but some seem to have fought with a lance
instead.
In addition to this gear, real Samnite warriors wore a cuirass over the chest and had a shield that tapered at the bottom and flared at the top to better protect the chest and shoulders.
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
gladiator
Gladiator
A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the...
who fought with equipment styled on that of a warrior from Samnium
Samnium
Samnium is a Latin exonym for a region of south or south and central Italy in Roman times. The name survives in Italian today, but today's territory comprising it is only a small portion of what it once was. The populations of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans...
: a short sword (gladius
Gladius
Gladius was the Latin word for sword, and is used to represent the primary sword of Ancient Roman soldiers. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those used by the Greeks. From the 3rd century BC, the Romans adopted swords similar to those used by the Celtiberians and others during the early...
), a rectangular shield (scutum
Scutum (shield)
Scutum is the Latin word for "shield", although it has in modern times come to be specifically associated with the rectangular, semi-cylindrical body shield carried by Roman legionaries.-History:...
), a greave
Greave
A greave is a piece of armour that protects the leg.-Description:...
(ocrea), and a helmet. Warriors armed in such a way were the earliest gladiators in the Roman games
Ludi Romani
The Ludi Romani were a religious festival in ancient Rome. They were held annually starting in 366 BC from September 12 to September 14, later extended to September 5 to September 19. In the last 1st century BC, an extra day was added in honor of the deified Julius Caesar on 4 September...
. They appeared in Rome shortly after the defeat of Samnium in the 4th century BC, apparently adopted from the victory celebrations of Rome's allies in Campania
Campania
Campania is a region in southern Italy. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,590 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
. By arming low-status gladiators in the manner of a defeated foe, Romans mocked the Samnites and appropriated martial elements of their culture.
Samnites were quite popular during the period of Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
. Eventually, other gladiator types joined the roster, such as the Gaul
Murmillo
The murmillo was a type of gladiator during the Roman Imperial age. The murmillo-class gladiator was adopted in the early Imperial period to replace the earlier Gallus, named after the warriors of Gaul...
and the Thracian
Thraex
The Thraex , or Thracian, was a type of Roman gladiator, armed in the Thracian style with small rectangular shield called a parmula and a very short sword with a slightly curved blade called a sica , intended to maim an opponent's unarmoured back...
. Under the reign of Emperor Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
, Samnium became an ally and integral part of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
(all Italians had by this point gained Roman citizenship
Roman citizenship
Citizenship in ancient Rome was a privileged political and legal status afforded to certain free-born individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance....
). Around this time, the Samnite gladiator fell out of favour, probably because insulting the Samnites was no longer seen as acceptable behaviour. The Samnite was replaced by similarly armed gladiators, including the hoplomachus
Hoplomachus
A Hoplomachus was a type of gladiator in ancient Rome, armed to resemble a Greek hoplite...
and the secutor
Secutor
A Secutor was a class of gladiator in ancient Rome.Thought to have originated around 50 AD, the Secutor was armed similarly to the Murmillo gladiator, and like the Murmillo, was protected by heavy armour. A Secutor usually carried a short sword, a gladius, or a dagger...
.
History and role
The Samnite was named for the people of SamniumSamnium
Samnium is a Latin exonym for a region of south or south and central Italy in Roman times. The name survives in Italian today, but today's territory comprising it is only a small portion of what it once was. The populations of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans...
, an area in the southern Apennine Mountains
Apennine mountains
The Apennines or Apennine Mountains or Greek oros but just as often used alone as a noun. The ancient Greeks and Romans typically but not always used "mountain" in the singular to mean one or a range; thus, "the Apennine mountain" refers to the entire chain and is translated "the Apennine...
of the Italian peninsula that Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
subdued in the 4th century BC. Rome fought three wars with Samnium from 343 to 290 BC. Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
(9.40) relates that after Rome defeated Samnium and Molise
Molise
Molise is a region of Southern Italy, the second smallest of the regions. It was formerly part of the region of Abruzzi e Molise and now a separate entity...
in 308 BC, Rome's allies, the Campanians
Campanians
The Campanians were an ancient Italic people, part of the Osci nation, speaking an Oscan language.Descending from the Apennines the proto-Osci settled in the areas of present day Campania at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, or even before...
, confiscated Samnite arms and armour as spoils of war. They outfitted ceremonial warriors with the equipment and staged mock combats at their celebratory banquets:
The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver … The Romans had already learned of these splendid accountrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and courage … The dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armor. So the Romans made use of the splendid armor of their enemies to do honor to the gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name of Samnites.
Ethnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
antecedents; other examples were the Gauls
Murmillo
The murmillo was a type of gladiator during the Roman Imperial age. The murmillo-class gladiator was adopted in the early Imperial period to replace the earlier Gallus, named after the warriors of Gaul...
and the Thracians
Thraex
The Thraex , or Thracian, was a type of Roman gladiator, armed in the Thracian style with small rectangular shield called a parmula and a very short sword with a slightly curved blade called a sica , intended to maim an opponent's unarmoured back...
. These gladiators fought with the signature war equipment and in the martial style of ethnic groups who had been conquered by Rome, thus appropriating their source culture for the mocking milieu of the Roman games
Ludi Romani
The Ludi Romani were a religious festival in ancient Rome. They were held annually starting in 366 BC from September 12 to September 14, later extended to September 5 to September 19. In the last 1st century BC, an extra day was added in honor of the deified Julius Caesar on 4 September...
. Gladiators who fought as any particular type did not necessarily hail from that ethnic background; the tombstone of a gladiator named Thelyphus is careful to point out that he fought as a Samnite but was really a Thracian.
Samnite gladiators appear quite frequently in Roman art
Roman art
Roman art has the visual arts made in Ancient Rome, and in the territories of the Roman Empire. Major forms of Roman art are architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work...
work. Other gladiator classes were added to the roster over the years, and some of these used similar gear, especially plumed helmets, adding to the difficulty of positively identifying Samnites. Roman spectators perceived gladiators as more masculine and honourable if they were more heavily armed and armoured. Thus, the Samnite, one of the heavier types, was an impressive sight with a fierce appearance. The Samnite may have been the first gladiator to be pitted against the retiarius
Retiarius
A retiarius was a Roman gladiator who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman: a weighted net , a three-pointed trident , and a dagger...
, a gladiator who fought with the gear of a fisherman and who was viewed as effeminate due to his light armaments. Accordingly, some retiarii may have trained as Samnites to improve their status. Gladiators who fought with a rectangular shield and sword, such as the provocator, were said to be "armed in the Samnite manner". Such gladiators remained popular until the end of the gladiatorial games.
Samnite gladiators appear often in Roman texts (they are the gladiators most often mentioned in Roman writings) until the early Imperial period
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. A likely possibility is that the Samnite went out of favour during the reign of Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
when Samnium became an ally of Rome. As the real Samnites became fully integrated into Roman society, the gladiator based upon them was retired. At this time, similar classes, the hoplomachus
Hoplomachus
A Hoplomachus was a type of gladiator in ancient Rome, armed to resemble a Greek hoplite...
, murmillo
Murmillo
The murmillo was a type of gladiator during the Roman Imperial age. The murmillo-class gladiator was adopted in the early Imperial period to replace the earlier Gallus, named after the warriors of Gaul...
, and the secutor
Secutor
A Secutor was a class of gladiator in ancient Rome.Thought to have originated around 50 AD, the Secutor was armed similarly to the Murmillo gladiator, and like the Murmillo, was protected by heavy armour. A Secutor usually carried a short sword, a gladius, or a dagger...
first appear in texts. It seems that the Samnite became specialized into these classes, although the means by which this happened is unclear. The Samnite and its successors all fought with a footsoldier's sword and shield. The only clear distinguishing characteristics are that the secutor almost exclusively fought the net-and-trident-wielding retiarius, and the hoplomachus
Hoplomachus
A Hoplomachus was a type of gladiator in ancient Rome, armed to resemble a Greek hoplite...
used a taller shield.
Arms and armour
Although individual gladiators of a single class might fight with widely different gear, in general, the Samnite fought in the gear of a warrior from Samnium: a short sword (gladiusGladius
Gladius was the Latin word for sword, and is used to represent the primary sword of Ancient Roman soldiers. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those used by the Greeks. From the 3rd century BC, the Romans adopted swords similar to those used by the Celtiberians and others during the early...
), a rectangular shield (scutum (shield)
Scutum (shield)
Scutum is the Latin word for "shield", although it has in modern times come to be specifically associated with the rectangular, semi-cylindrical body shield carried by Roman legionaries.-History:...
), a greave
Greave
A greave is a piece of armour that protects the leg.-Description:...
(ocrea), and a helmet. The helmet had a crest, a rim, a visor, and a plume (galea); this last element gave "an imposing appearance". The Samnite's greave was worn on the left leg and reached to just below the knee. It was made of leather and sometimes had a metal rim. He also wore an ankleband on the right ankle. The Samnite's sword arm was protected by an arm guard (manica
Manica
Manica may refer to:* Manica Province, a province of Mozambique** Manica, Mozambique, a town* Manica, a part of the male Lepidoptera genitalia near the aedeagus* Manica , armguards used by the Roman legionaries and gladiators...
); this became a common piece of equipment for most gladiators. The sword was the Samnite's most common weapon (the word gladiator comes from the Latin gladius, "sword"), but some seem to have fought with a lance
Lance
A Lance is a pole weapon or spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior. The lance is longer, stout and heavier than an infantry spear, and unsuited for throwing, or for rapid thrusting. Lances did not have tips designed to intentionally break off or bend, unlike many throwing weapons of the...
instead.
In addition to this gear, real Samnite warriors wore a cuirass over the chest and had a shield that tapered at the bottom and flared at the top to better protect the chest and shoulders.