Sextus Julius Frontinus
Encyclopedia
Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca. 40–103 AD) was one of the most distinguished Roman
aristocrats of the late 1st century AD, but is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially one dealing with the aqueducts of Rome
.
In 70 AD, he was praetor
, and five years later was sent into Britain
to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis
as governor of that island. He subdued the Silures
and other hostile tribes of Wales
, establishing a new base at Caerleon
or Isca Augusta
for Legio II Augusta
and a network of smaller forts fifteen to twenty kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. One of these forts would have been Luentinum
, which controlled the gold mine of Dolaucothi, worked by numerous aqueduct
s. He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola
in 78. Agricola was the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus.
In 95, he was appointed Water Commissioner of the aqueduct
s (curator aquarum) at Rome
by the emperor Nerva
, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the College of Augurs
. He produced an official report on the state of the aqueducts serving the city of Rome towards the end of the 1st century AD, the first official report of an investigation about engineering works ever to have been published.
In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, Agrippa, the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct Aqua Marcia
and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aedile
s (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned and renovated. Agrippa signalized his tenure of office by enlarging and restoring the Cloaca Maxima
, the main sewer
in Rome
, constructing thermae
and portico
s, and laying out gardens.
His chief work is De aquaeductu
, in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome
. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. The history of all the aqueducts of Rome
is described including details of the sizes of the channels and discharge rates, such as Aqua Appia
, Aqua Alsietina
, Aqua Tepula
, Anio Novus
, Aqua Virgo
, and Aqua Claudia
.
Aqua Traiana
was built later and finished in 109 AD. It is the highest of all the Roman aqueducts, and ends at the Janiculum
in a series of water mills. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring.
by Vitruvius
, which mentions aqueduct
construction and maintenance published in the previous century, classing him at one point as being influential with "the plumbers".
s.
(Latin: Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germany under Domitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.
One example he gives of control of river water during a siege:
novels The Silver Pigs
, Shadows in Bronze
, Three Hands in the Fountain
, and The Jupiter Myth
. He also appears as a character in the The Centurions
novels Barbarian Princess
and The Emperor's Games
.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
aristocrats of the late 1st century AD, but is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially one dealing with the aqueducts of Rome
Aqueducts of Rome
This is a list of aqueducts in Rome listed in chronological order of their construction.- Ancient Rome :* Aqua Appia** built in 312 BC** source: springs to the east of Rome...
.
In 70 AD, he was praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
, and five years later was sent into Britain
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire from AD 43 until ca. AD 410.The Romans referred to the imperial province as Britannia, which eventually comprised all of the island of Great Britain south of the fluid frontier with Caledonia...
to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis
Quintus Petillius Cerialis
Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus was a Roman general and administrator who served in Britain during Boudica's rebellion and who went on to participate in the civil wars after the death of Nero. He later defeated the rebellion of Julius Civilis and returned to Britain as its governor.His...
as governor of that island. He subdued the Silures
Silures
The Silures were a powerful and warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and Glamorganshire of present day South Wales; and possibly Gloucestershire and Herefordshire of present day England...
and other hostile tribes of Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
, establishing a new base at Caerleon
Caerleon
Caerleon is a suburban village and community, situated on the River Usk in the northern outskirts of the city of Newport, South Wales. Caerleon is a site of archaeological importance, being the site of a notable Roman legionary fortress, Isca Augusta, and an Iron Age hill fort...
or Isca Augusta
Isca Augusta
Isca Augusta was a Roman legionary fortress and settlement, the remains of which lie beneath parts of the present-day village of Caerleon on the northern outskirts of the city of Newport in South Wales.-Name:...
for Legio II Augusta
Legio II Augusta
Legio secunda Augusta , was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in the 4th century...
and a network of smaller forts fifteen to twenty kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. One of these forts would have been Luentinum
Luentinum
Luentinum was a fort and mining settlement in the Roman province of Britannia. It was associated with the Dolaucothi Gold Mines and its remains lie beneath the adjoining village of Pumsaint in the Welsh county of Carmarthenshire. It lay between similar forts at Llandovery and Bremia near Llanio,...
, which controlled the gold mine of Dolaucothi, worked by numerous aqueduct
Aqueduct
An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose....
s. He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Gnaeus Julius Agricola was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. His biography, the De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, was the first published work of his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, and is the source for most of what is known about him.Born to a noted...
in 78. Agricola was the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus.
In 95, he was appointed Water Commissioner of the aqueduct
Roman aqueduct
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to serve any large city in their empire, as well as many small towns and industrial sites. The city of Rome had the largest concentration of aqueducts, with water being supplied by eleven aqueducts constructed over a period of about 500 years...
s (curator aquarum) at Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
by the emperor Nerva
Nerva
Nerva , was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became Emperor at the age of sixty-five, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65...
, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the College of Augurs
Augur
The augur was a priest and official in the classical world, especially ancient Rome and Etruria. His main role was to interpret the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds: whether they are flying in groups/alone, what noises they make as they fly, direction of flight and what kind of...
. He produced an official report on the state of the aqueducts serving the city of Rome towards the end of the 1st century AD, the first official report of an investigation about engineering works ever to have been published.
In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, Agrippa, the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct Aqua Marcia
Aqua Marcia
The Aqua Marcia was the longest of the 11 aqueducts that supplied the city of ancient Rome. The still-functioning Acqua Felice from 1586 runs on long stretches along the route of the Aqua Marcia....
and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aedile
Aedile
Aedile was an office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order. There were two pairs of aediles. Two aediles were from the ranks of plebeians and the other...
s (officials responsible for Rome's buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned and renovated. Agrippa signalized his tenure of office by enlarging and restoring the Cloaca Maxima
Cloaca Maxima
The Cloaca Maxima is one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Constructed in Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove the waste of one of the world's most populous cities, it carried an effluent to the River Tiber, which ran beside the city....
, the main sewer
Sanitary sewer
A sanitary sewer is a separate underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater...
in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, constructing thermae
Thermae
In ancient Rome, thermae and balnea were facilities for bathing...
and portico
Portico
A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls...
s, and laying out gardens.
The Aqueducts of Rome
De aquaeductu
' is a two-book official report given to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome, and was written by Julius Sextus Frontinus at the end of the 1st century AD. It is also known as or . It is the earliest official report of an investigation made by a distinguished citizen on Roman...
, in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome
Aqueducts of Rome
This is a list of aqueducts in Rome listed in chronological order of their construction.- Ancient Rome :* Aqua Appia** built in 312 BC** source: springs to the east of Rome...
. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. The history of all the aqueducts of Rome
Aqueducts of Rome
This is a list of aqueducts in Rome listed in chronological order of their construction.- Ancient Rome :* Aqua Appia** built in 312 BC** source: springs to the east of Rome...
is described including details of the sizes of the channels and discharge rates, such as Aqua Appia
Aqua Appia
The Aqua Appia was the first Roman aqueduct. It was constructed in 312 BC by Appius Claudius Caecus, the same Roman censor who also built the important Via Appia...
, Aqua Alsietina
Aqua Alsietina
In Ancient Rome, the Aqua Alsietina was the earliest of the two western aqueducts, erected somewhere around 2 BC, during the reign of emperor Augustus...
, Aqua Tepula
Aqua Tepula
The Aqua Tepula is an ancient Roman aqueduct built in 126 BC by censors G. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus. Its source was at the Alban hills, running only a mere 18 kilometers to Rome...
, Anio Novus
Anio Novus
Anio Novus is an aqueduct of Rome. Together with the Aqua Claudia, it was begun by emperor Caligula in 38 AD and completed in 52 AD by Claudius, who dedicated them both on August 1.-Details:...
, Aqua Virgo
Aqua Virgo
The Aqua Virgo was one of the 11 aqueducts that supplied the city of ancient Rome. The aqueduct fell into disuse with the fall of the Roman Empire, but was fully restored nearly a whole millennium later during the Renaissance to take its current form as the Acqua Vergine.The Aqua Virgo was...
, and Aqua Claudia
Aqua Claudia
Aqua Claudia was an aqueduct of ancient Rome that, like the Anio Novus, was begun by emperor Caligula in 38 AD and completed by Emperor Claudius in 52 AD. Its main springs, the Caeruleus and Curtius, were situated 300 paces to the left of the thirty-eighth milestone of the Via Sublacensis...
.
Aqua Traiana
Aqua Traiana
thumb|240px|Route of Aqua Traiana shown in red.thumb|240px|Route of Aqua Traiana within ancient Rome.The Aqua Traiana was a 1st-century Roman acqueduct built by Emperor Trajan and inaugurated on 24 June 109 AD...
was built later and finished in 109 AD. It is the highest of all the Roman aqueducts, and ends at the Janiculum
Janiculum
The Janiculum is a hill in western Rome, Italy. Although the second-tallest hill in the contemporary city of Rome, the Janiculum does not figure among the proverbial Seven Hills of Rome, being west of the Tiber and outside the boundaries of the ancient city.-Sights:The Janiculum is one of the...
in a series of water mills. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring.
Fraud and theft
One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies. Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such water theft. He was well aware of the seminal work De ArchitecturaDe architectura
' is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for building projects...
by Vitruvius
Vitruvius
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st century BC. He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ....
, which mentions aqueduct
Aqueduct
An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose....
construction and maintenance published in the previous century, classing him at one point as being influential with "the plumbers".
Distribution system
Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for potable use. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticises the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.Maintenance
He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those statuteStatute
A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city, or county. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. The word is often used to distinguish law made by legislative bodies from case law, decided by courts, and regulations...
s.
Military tactics
Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the StratagemsStratagems (book)
Stratagems is a work by Frontinus, a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, ostensibly for the use of generals...
(Latin: Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germany under Domitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus and Livy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.
One example he gives of control of river water during a siege:
- Lucius Metellus, when fighting in Hither Spain, diverted the course of a river and directed it from a higher level against the camp of the enemy, which was located on low ground. Then, when the enemy were in a panic from the sudden flood, he had them slain by men whom he had stationed in ambush for this very purpose.
De aquaeductu
- The standard edition of the Latin text of Frontinus' major work, with extensive commentary in English, is now R.H. Rodgers, Frontinus: De aquaeductu urbis Romae (Cambridge University PressCambridge University PressCambridge University Press is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII in 1534, it is the world's oldest publishing house, and the second largest university press in the world...
, 2004). - Rodgers has published his English translation online http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html
- An English translation by Charles E. Bennet has been published in the Loeb Classical LibraryLoeb Classical LibraryThe Loeb Classical Library is a series of books, today published by Harvard University Press, which presents important works of ancient Greek and Latin Literature in a way designed to make the text accessible to the broadest possible audience, by presenting the original Greek or Latin text on each...
. - A translation by Herschel is useful for his commentary on the engineering aspects of the De aquaeductu.
Other works
- The latest edition of the StratagemsStratagems (book)Stratagems is a work by Frontinus, a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, ostensibly for the use of generals...
is by R. I. Ireland (Teubner, 1990 ISBN 3-322-00746-4) ; English translation in Loeb Classical Library, 1925. - Extracts from a treatise on land surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in B. Campbell (2000), The Writings of the Roman Land Surveyors: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary; London.
See also
- Cloaca MaximaCloaca MaximaThe Cloaca Maxima is one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Constructed in Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and remove the waste of one of the world's most populous cities, it carried an effluent to the River Tiber, which ran beside the city....
- De aquaeductuDe aquaeductu' is a two-book official report given to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome, and was written by Julius Sextus Frontinus at the end of the 1st century AD. It is also known as or . It is the earliest official report of an investigation made by a distinguished citizen on Roman...
- De ArchitecturaDe architectura' is a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for building projects...
- Dolaucothi
- GromaticiGromaticiGromatici , or agrimensores, was the name for land-surveyors amongst the ancient Romans...
- List of aqueducts in the city of Rome
- List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire
- List of Roman aqueducts by date
- QuinariaQuinariaA quinaria is a Roman unit of area, roughly equal to 4.2 square centimeters . Its primary use was to measure the cross-sectional area of pipes in Roman water distribution systems...
- Roman aqueducts
- Roman conquest of BritainRoman conquest of BritainThe Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning effectively in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, whose general Aulus Plautius served as first governor of Britannia. Great Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and...
- VitruviusVitruviusMarcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st century BC. He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ....
- Aggenus UrbicusAggenus UrbicusAggenus Urbicus was an ancient Roman technical writer on the science of the Agrimensores, that is, land surveying. It is uncertain when he lived; but he appears to have been a Christian, and it is not improbable from some expressions which he uses, that he lived at the latter part of the 4th...
Trivia
He appears as a fictionalised character in the Marcus Didius FalcoMarcus Didius Falco
Marcus Didius Falco is the central character and narrator in a series of novels by Lindsey Davis. Using the concepts of modern detective stories , Davis portrays the world of the Roman Empire under Vespasian...
novels The Silver Pigs
The Silver Pigs
The Silver Pigs is a crime novel by Lindsey Davis. Set in Rome and Britannia during AD 70, just after the year of the four emperors, The Silver Pigs stars Marcus Didius Falco, informer and imperial agent....
, Shadows in Bronze
Shadows in Bronze
-Plot introduction:Set in Rome during AD 71, Shadows in Bronze stars Marcus Didius Falco, Informer and Imperial Agent.-Explanation of the novel's title:...
, Three Hands in the Fountain
Three Hands in the Fountain
-Plot introduction:Set in Rome between August and October, AD 73, Three Hands in the Fountain stars Marcus Didius Falco, Informer and Imperial Agent...
, and The Jupiter Myth
The Jupiter Myth
-Plot introduction:Set in Londinium, Britannia in August AD 75, The Jupiter Myth stars Marcus Didius Falco, Informer and Imperial Agent. It is the fourteenth in Davis' Falco series.-Explanation of the novel's title:...
. He also appears as a character in the The Centurions
The Centurions
The Centurions were an American surf rock band from Newport Beach, California, active in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In recent times, they are best known for their recording "Bullwinkle Part II", a dark and saxy surf tune from their eponymous album. This tune was featured in Quentin...
novels Barbarian Princess
Barbarian Princess (book)
Barbarian Princess is the second in a historical fiction trilogy about the 1st-century Roman Empire. Set primarily in Roman Britain circa AD 76-79, it follows the adventures of a pair of Roman brothers - one free-born and one slave-born - as they serve in the Roman legions.-Plot summary:Correus...
and The Emperor's Games
The Emperor's Games
The Emperor's Games is the third and last book in a historical fiction trilogy about the 1st-century Roman Empire. Set primarily in Rome and Lower Germany circa AD 81-83, it follows the adventures of a pair of Roman brothers - one free-born and one slave-born - as they serve in the Roman...
.
Further reading
- Herschel, C, The Two Books on The Water Supply of the City of Rome of Frontinus, (trans with explanatory chapters) New England Water Works Association (1973).
- Ashby, Thomas., The Aqueducts of Rome, Oxford, 1934.
- Hodge, A.T. (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.
External links
- Frontinus at LacusCurtius: full texts of De aquis and Strategemata in Latin and English; illustrated with some of the Monscassinensis manuscript from the Herschel edition.
- Sextus Iulius Frontinus (fr)
- Models of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome
- Routes of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome
- Famous Fountains of Rome
- The Fountains of Rome (by Region)
- Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines