Silius Italicus
Encyclopedia
Silius Italicus, in full Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus (ca. 28 – ca. 103), was a Roman
consul
, orator, and Latin
epic poet
of the 1st century CE, (Silver Age of Latin literature). His only surviving work is the 17-book Punica
, an epic poem about the Second Punic War
and the longest surviving poem in Latin at over 12,000 lines.
, which is a description of the poet's life written on the occasion of his suicide, some inscriptions, and several epigrams by the poet Martial
. Silius is believed to have been born between 23 and 35 CE, but his birthplace has not been securely identified. Italica
, in the Roman province of Hispania
i.e., Spain
was once considered the prime candidate, based on his cognomen
Italicus, but if that were the case Latin usage would have demanded the form Italicensis, and it is highly improbable that Martial
would have failed to name him among the literary celebrities of Spain in the latter half of the 1st century. The city of Patavium, Padua
has been suggested by J. D. Campbell based on a seeming bias in favor of the region in the Punica and the prevalence of the name Asconius in inscriptions from the region.
. Silius was generally believed to have voluntarily and enthusiastically become an informer under Nero
, prosecuting in court persons whom the emperor wished condemned. He was consul in the year of Nero's death (68 CE), and afterward became a close friend and ally of the emperor Vitellius
, whom he served, according to Pliny sapienter et comiter, wisely and amicably. He is mentioned by Tacitus
as having been one of two witnesses who were present at the conferences between Vitellius
and Flavius Sabinus
, the elder brother of Vespasian
, when the legions from the East were marching rapidly on the capital. Silius became proconsul of Asia ca. 77 CE as attested in an inscription from Aphrodisias
which describes his activities in maintaining the institutions of the city. According to Pliny 3.7, he performed his duties well and earned himself a place of importance in the empire.
Pliny depicts him spending time in learned conversation at his villas, writing, passionately collecting books and sculpture, and giving recitations of his works. Silius was evidently writing poems as early as 88 CE. It is firmly believed that the Punica was written during this retirement period of Silius' life. Martial 7.63 indicates that some of the Punica had been published by 92 CE and that Silius was no longer making speeches in court. Book 14 has been dated tentatively to after 96 CE based on the poet's treatment of Domitian. His poem contains several passages relating to the Flavians, and Domitian
is eulogized as a warrior and as a singer whose lyre is sweeter than that of Orpheus
himself. The poem mentions primarily Domitian but later seems to discuss the emperor Nerva
, although Domitian may be meant by the latter reference. The poet's attitude to Domitian tends to be laudatory and friendly, employing the full spectrum of Virgillian panegyrical language and imagery.
Silius was considered highly educated by contemporaries. The philosopher Epictetus
judged him to be the most philosophic spirit among the Romans of his time, and Cornutus
, the Stoic, rhetoric
ian and grammar
ian, dedicated to Silius a commentary upon Virgil. He had two sons, one of whom, Severus, died young. The other, Decianus, went on to become consul. As he aged, he moved permanently to his villas in Campania, not even leaving to attend the accession ceremony of Trajan
. Silius idealized and almost worshipped two great Romans of the past, Cicero
and Virgil
. He purchased Cicero's estate at Tusculum
and the tomb of Virgil in Naples
, which he restored. Pliny records that Silius especially revered Virgil, celebrating Virgil's birthday more lavishly than his own and treating the poet's tomb as a shrine. His dual interests in composing epic poetry and discussing philosophical questions have been compared to the intellectual efforts of his heroes, Virgil and Cicero respectively.
Silius was one of the numerous Romans of the early empire who had the courage of their opinions, and carried into perfect practice the theory of suicide
developed in Stoicism
; Punica 11.186-88 contains a praise of suicide. Stricken by an incurable tumour after the age of 75, he starved himself to death around 103 CE, keeping a cheerful countenance to the end. Pliny remarks that Silius was the last person to die who was consul under Nero.
, about the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in seventeen books, comprising some twelve thousand lines, making it the longest preserved poem in Latin literature.
The poem takes Virgil as its primary stylistic and dramatic inspiration throughout the poem; from its opening, the Punica is configured as the continuation of Juno's grudge against Rome developed in the Aeneid. Livy
and Ennius
are important sources for historical and poetic information, and Homer specifically is declared an important model by Silius who remarks of him at 12.788-9, "his [Homer's] poetry embraced the earth, sea, stars, and shades and he rivaled the Muses in song and Phoebus in glory." Lucan is also an important model for the writing of historical epic, geographical excursus, and Stoic tone, although Silius' approach toward the gods in much more traditional.
The poem opens with a discussion of Juno's wrath against Rome on account of Aeneas
' treatment of Dido
and of Hannibal's character and upbringing. Hannibal attacks Saguntum and receives a Roman embassy. In Book 2, the Roman legation is heard at Carthage
, but Hannibal takes the city after the defenders heroically commit suicide. The Carthaginians are catalogued, Hannibal crosses the Alps, and Jupiter
reveals that the Punic War is a test of Roman manliness in Book 3. In 4 and 5 the Romans suffer defeat at Ticinius, Trebia
, and Lake Trasimene. Book 6 looks back to the exploits of Atilius Regulus in the First Punic War
, while Book 7 describes Quintus Fabius Maximus
' delaying strategy. Books 8-10 describe in vivid detail the battle of Cannae
; Juno prevents Hannibal from marching on Rome. In Book 11, Hannibal's army winters in Capua, where Venus enfeebles them with luxury. Hannibal is defeated at Nola
in 12, emboldening the Romans. He makes an attempt on the city, but Juno stops him, revealing that the gods are against him. Book 13 reports the Roman's invasion of Capua and the death of two Scipio
s, which leads to Scipio Africanus
' journey to the underworld (nekyia), his meeting with famous dead heroes, and a prophecy by the Sibyl
of Hannibal's defeat. In 14 the Marcellus
' successful Sicilian campaign and the siegecraft of Archimedes
are described. In 15, Scipio, choosing Virtue over Vice, has a successful campaign in Spain, while at the Battle of the Metaurus
, Hannibal's brother is killed. 16 describes the alliance between Rome and Masinissa
and the Scipio's crossing into Africa, while 17 describes the bringing of the statue of Cybele
to Rome, Hannibal's stormy crossing into Africa, Juno's appeal to Jupiter for the life of Hannibal, and the Battle of Zama
. The poem ends with Scipio's triumphal return to Rome.
Silius' style is unlike Virgil in that he does not focus on a few central characters but divides his action up between many significant heroes. This encourages him to present describe important events from the Roman past as a reflection on the characters and their actions in the poem's present, echoing the Roman tradition of using exempla. While many important set pieces of epic are included, such as elaborated similes, ekphrases of objects, such as Hannibal's shield in 2.391-456, a nekyia, and divine participation in and prophecy of events, there are also important elements of historiography such as paired contrasting speeches and detailed geographical description. Allegory is particularly important in Silius, and he includes such figures as Fides, faith, in Book 2, Italia in 15, and Virtus and Voluptas also in Book 15, continuing a trend towards allegory which was significant in Statius
, Silius' contemporary. Silius' metrics and language can be closely compared to Virgilian usage, especially his use of spondee
s. Stoicism and stoic ethical thought are significant themes in the Punica. The war is configured as a trial of Roman virtus which must be overcome with hard work, akin to the Stoic ideal of overcoming adversity with inner courage and trial. The "choice of Hercules", a favorite Stoic parable, is given to Scipio in Book 15, and everywhere the war brings out moral lessons and discussions of Stoic concepts like emotion, reason, and destiny.
. Pliny's judgment that Silius wrote poetry maiore cura quam ingenio, "with more eagerness than genius" has encouraged the view that Silius is a talented but mediocre and uninspired poet. The poem seems to have been mostly unknown in the Middle Ages. Petrarch
's Africa was composed independently of the Punica, as the manuscript was discovered by Poggio Bracciolini in 1417 at St. Gall during the Council of Constance
. Julius Caesar Scaliger
's harsh opinion of Silius damaged his reputation. Many authors were familiar with Silius' work, such as Montaigne, Milton
, Dryden
(who considered him better than Lucan), Gibbon
, and Alexander Pope
. Joseph Addison
particularly includes many quotations of Silius in his Dialogue on Medals as does Thomas Macaulay in his works. Interest in Silius mostly vanished in the 19th century. As for visual arts, Raphael's Vision of the Knight is a treatment of Silius' choice of Scipio. Despite Silius' poor reputation, classical scholars with their renewed interest in later Imperial epic seem to be finally turning their attentions to Silius' poetry.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
, orator, and Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
epic poet
Epic poetry
An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Oral poetry may qualify as an epic, and Albert Lord and Milman Parry have argued that classical epics were fundamentally an oral poetic form...
of the 1st century CE, (Silver Age of Latin literature). His only surviving work is the 17-book Punica
Punica (poem)
The Punica is a Latin epic poem in seventeen books in dactylic hexameter written by Silius Italicus comprising some twelve thousand lines . It is the longest surviving Latin poem from antiquity...
, an epic poem about the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
and the longest surviving poem in Latin at over 12,000 lines.
Sources and Birthplace
The sources for the life of Silius Italicus are primarily letter 3.7 of Pliny the YoungerPliny the Younger
Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo , better known as Pliny the Younger, was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and educate him...
, which is a description of the poet's life written on the occasion of his suicide, some inscriptions, and several epigrams by the poet Martial
Martial
Marcus Valerius Martialis , was a Latin poet from Hispania best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan...
. Silius is believed to have been born between 23 and 35 CE, but his birthplace has not been securely identified. Italica
Italica
The city of Italica was founded in 206 BC by the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in order to settle Roman soldiers wounded in the Battle of Ilipa, where the Carthaginian army was defeated during the Second Punic War...
, in the Roman province of Hispania
Hispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
i.e., Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
was once considered the prime candidate, based on his cognomen
Cognomen
The cognomen nōmen "name") was the third name of a citizen of Ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. The cognomen started as a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditary. Hereditary cognomina were used to augment the second name in order to identify a particular branch within...
Italicus, but if that were the case Latin usage would have demanded the form Italicensis, and it is highly improbable that Martial
Martial
Marcus Valerius Martialis , was a Latin poet from Hispania best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan...
would have failed to name him among the literary celebrities of Spain in the latter half of the 1st century. The city of Patavium, Padua
Padua
Padua is a city and comune in the Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua's population is 212,500 . The city is sometimes included, with Venice and Treviso, in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, having...
has been suggested by J. D. Campbell based on a seeming bias in favor of the region in the Punica and the prevalence of the name Asconius in inscriptions from the region.
Political career
In early life Silius was a renowned forensic orator, later a safe and cautious politicianPolitician
A politician, political leader, or political figure is an individual who is involved in influencing public policy and decision making...
. Silius was generally believed to have voluntarily and enthusiastically become an informer under Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
, prosecuting in court persons whom the emperor wished condemned. He was consul in the year of Nero's death (68 CE), and afterward became a close friend and ally of the emperor Vitellius
Vitellius
Vitellius , was Roman Emperor for eight months, from 16 April to 22 December 69. Vitellius was acclaimed Emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
, whom he served, according to Pliny sapienter et comiter, wisely and amicably. He is mentioned by Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
as having been one of two witnesses who were present at the conferences between Vitellius
Vitellius
Vitellius , was Roman Emperor for eight months, from 16 April to 22 December 69. Vitellius was acclaimed Emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
and Flavius Sabinus
Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul 47)
Titus Flavius Sabinus was a Roman politician and soldier. He was the elder son of Titus Flavius Sabinus and Vespasia Polla and brother of the Emperor Vespasian.-Career:...
, the elder brother of Vespasian
Vespasian
Vespasian , was Roman Emperor from 69 AD to 79 AD. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was descended from a family of equestrians, who rose into the senatorial rank under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
, when the legions from the East were marching rapidly on the capital. Silius became proconsul of Asia ca. 77 CE as attested in an inscription from Aphrodisias
Aphrodisias
Aphrodisias was a small city in Caria, on the southwest coast of Asia Minor. Its site is located near the modern village of Geyre, Turkey, about 230 km from İzmir....
which describes his activities in maintaining the institutions of the city. According to Pliny 3.7, he performed his duties well and earned himself a place of importance in the empire.
Campanian Retirement and Suicide
After his proconsulship in Asia, Silius seems to have left politics in favor of a leisurely life; despite his wealth and importance in the state, he seems to have exercised little power and avoided offense. Thus, he outlived the Flavian dynasty without incident.Pliny depicts him spending time in learned conversation at his villas, writing, passionately collecting books and sculpture, and giving recitations of his works. Silius was evidently writing poems as early as 88 CE. It is firmly believed that the Punica was written during this retirement period of Silius' life. Martial 7.63 indicates that some of the Punica had been published by 92 CE and that Silius was no longer making speeches in court. Book 14 has been dated tentatively to after 96 CE based on the poet's treatment of Domitian. His poem contains several passages relating to the Flavians, and Domitian
Domitian
Domitian was Roman Emperor from 81 to 96. Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty.Domitian's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during the First Jewish-Roman War...
is eulogized as a warrior and as a singer whose lyre is sweeter than that of Orpheus
Orpheus
Orpheus was a legendary musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek religion and myth. The major stories about him are centered on his ability to charm all living things and even stones with his music; his attempt to retrieve his wife from the underworld; and his death at the hands of those who...
himself. The poem mentions primarily Domitian but later seems to discuss the emperor Nerva
Nerva
Nerva , was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became Emperor at the age of sixty-five, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65...
, although Domitian may be meant by the latter reference. The poet's attitude to Domitian tends to be laudatory and friendly, employing the full spectrum of Virgillian panegyrical language and imagery.
Silius was considered highly educated by contemporaries. The philosopher Epictetus
Epictetus
Epictetus was a Greek sage and Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
judged him to be the most philosophic spirit among the Romans of his time, and Cornutus
Lucius Annaeus Cornutus
Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, , a Stoic philosopher, flourished in the reign of Nero , when his house in Rome was a school of philosophy.-Life:He was a native of Leptis Magna in Libya, but resided for the most part in Rome...
, the Stoic, rhetoric
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
ian and grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
ian, dedicated to Silius a commentary upon Virgil. He had two sons, one of whom, Severus, died young. The other, Decianus, went on to become consul. As he aged, he moved permanently to his villas in Campania, not even leaving to attend the accession ceremony of Trajan
Trajan
Trajan , was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, in Spain Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in Spain, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against...
. Silius idealized and almost worshipped two great Romans of the past, Cicero
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
and Virgil
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro, usually called Virgil or Vergil in English , was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He is known for three major works of Latin literature, the Eclogues , the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid...
. He purchased Cicero's estate at Tusculum
Tusculum
Tusculum is a ruined Roman city in the Alban Hills, in the Latium region of Italy.-Location:Tusculum is one of the largest Roman cities in Alban Hills. The ruins of Tusculum are located on Tuscolo hill—more specifically on the northern edge of the outer crater ring of the Alban volcano...
and the tomb of Virgil in Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, which he restored. Pliny records that Silius especially revered Virgil, celebrating Virgil's birthday more lavishly than his own and treating the poet's tomb as a shrine. His dual interests in composing epic poetry and discussing philosophical questions have been compared to the intellectual efforts of his heroes, Virgil and Cicero respectively.
Silius was one of the numerous Romans of the early empire who had the courage of their opinions, and carried into perfect practice the theory of suicide
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
developed in Stoicism
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
; Punica 11.186-88 contains a praise of suicide. Stricken by an incurable tumour after the age of 75, he starved himself to death around 103 CE, keeping a cheerful countenance to the end. Pliny remarks that Silius was the last person to die who was consul under Nero.
Works
Whether Silius committed his philosophic dialogues and speeches to writing or not, we cannot say. His only preserved work is his epic poem entitled PunicaPunica (poem)
The Punica is a Latin epic poem in seventeen books in dactylic hexameter written by Silius Italicus comprising some twelve thousand lines . It is the longest surviving Latin poem from antiquity...
, about the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in seventeen books, comprising some twelve thousand lines, making it the longest preserved poem in Latin literature.
The Punica
The dating of the Punica has been a difficult issue for classical scholars, but two passages, 3.594 and 14.680ff. along with several poems of Martial cited above indicate that it was composed sometime between 83 and 103, with Book 3 being dated to 84 CE and Book 14 around 96. Other books cannot be dated with any precision. The poem is divided into 17 books and is composed in dactylic hexameter. It has been thought that the poem was initially planned in hexads and that the original intent was to round off the composition in 18 books.The poem takes Virgil as its primary stylistic and dramatic inspiration throughout the poem; from its opening, the Punica is configured as the continuation of Juno's grudge against Rome developed in the Aeneid. Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
and Ennius
Ennius
Quintus Ennius was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Calabrian descent...
are important sources for historical and poetic information, and Homer specifically is declared an important model by Silius who remarks of him at 12.788-9, "his [Homer's] poetry embraced the earth, sea, stars, and shades and he rivaled the Muses in song and Phoebus in glory." Lucan is also an important model for the writing of historical epic, geographical excursus, and Stoic tone, although Silius' approach toward the gods in much more traditional.
The poem opens with a discussion of Juno's wrath against Rome on account of Aeneas
Aeneas
Aeneas , in Greco-Roman mythology, was a Trojan hero, the son of the prince Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite. His father was the second cousin of King Priam of Troy, making Aeneas Priam's second cousin, once removed. The journey of Aeneas from Troy , which led to the founding a hamlet south of...
' treatment of Dido
Dido, Queen of Carthage
Dido, Queen of Carthage is a short play written by the English playwright Christopher Marlowe, with possible contributions by Thomas Nashe. The story of the play focuses on the classical figure of Dido, the Queen of Carthage...
and of Hannibal's character and upbringing. Hannibal attacks Saguntum and receives a Roman embassy. In Book 2, the Roman legation is heard at Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
, but Hannibal takes the city after the defenders heroically commit suicide. The Carthaginians are catalogued, Hannibal crosses the Alps, and Jupiter
Jupiter (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
reveals that the Punic War is a test of Roman manliness in Book 3. In 4 and 5 the Romans suffer defeat at Ticinius, Trebia
Trebia
Trebia or Trebbia can refer to:*The Trebbia River, in Italy*The Battle of the Trebia, 18 December 218 BC*The Battle of Trebia *Villa del Trebbio, a Tuscan villa*Trebbiano, a grape...
, and Lake Trasimene. Book 6 looks back to the exploits of Atilius Regulus in the First Punic War
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
, while Book 7 describes Quintus Fabius Maximus
Quintus Fabius Maximus
Quintus Fabius Maximus most commonly refers to;*Quintus Fabius Maximus*A number of ancient Romans from the gens Fabia.The ancient Romans that share the name Quintus Fabius Maximus include:* Quintus Fabius Maximus, augur 203–196 BC....
' delaying strategy. Books 8-10 describe in vivid detail the battle of Cannae
Cannae
Cannae is an ancient village of the Apulia region of south east Italy. It is a frazione of the comune of Barletta.-Geography:It is situated near the river Aufidus , on a hill on the right Cannae (mod. Canne della Battaglia) is an ancient village of the Apulia region of south east Italy. It is a...
; Juno prevents Hannibal from marching on Rome. In Book 11, Hannibal's army winters in Capua, where Venus enfeebles them with luxury. Hannibal is defeated at Nola
Nola
Nola is a city and comune of Campania, southern Italy, in the province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines...
in 12, emboldening the Romans. He makes an attempt on the city, but Juno stops him, revealing that the gods are against him. Book 13 reports the Roman's invasion of Capua and the death of two Scipio
Scipio
-Classical:* Scipio, a representation of the Cornelii Scipiones, branch of the illustrious Cornelii family from Ancient Rome.* Scipio Africanus, Roman general who defeated Hannibal at Zama, the final battle of the Second Punic War....
s, which leads to Scipio Africanus
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
' journey to the underworld (nekyia), his meeting with famous dead heroes, and a prophecy by the Sibyl
Sibyl
The word Sibyl comes from the Greek word σίβυλλα sibylla, meaning prophetess. The earliest oracular seeresses known as the sibyls of antiquity, "who admittedly are known only through legend" prophesied at certain holy sites, under the divine influence of a deity, originally— at Delphi and...
of Hannibal's defeat. In 14 the Marcellus
Marcellus
-In Christianity:* Marcellus of Ancyra , bishop* Pope Marcellus I, saint* Pope Marcellus II, Italian pope* Marcellus of Tangier , martyr* Pseudo-Marcellus, author of the Passio sanctorum Petri et Pauli...
' successful Sicilian campaign and the siegecraft of Archimedes
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an...
are described. In 15, Scipio, choosing Virtue over Vice, has a successful campaign in Spain, while at the Battle of the Metaurus
Battle of the Metaurus
The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metauro River in present-day Italy. The battle gets a chapter in the classic The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World by Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy...
, Hannibal's brother is killed. 16 describes the alliance between Rome and Masinissa
Masinissa
Masinissa — also spelled Massinissa and Massena — was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of ancient Libyan tribes. As a successful general, Masinissa fought in the Second Punic War , first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage an later switching sides when he saw which...
and the Scipio's crossing into Africa, while 17 describes the bringing of the statue of Cybele
Cybele
Cybele , was a Phrygian form of the Earth Mother or Great Mother. As with Greek Gaia , her Minoan equivalent Rhea and some aspects of Demeter, Cybele embodies the fertile Earth...
to Rome, Hannibal's stormy crossing into Africa, Juno's appeal to Jupiter for the life of Hannibal, and the Battle of Zama
Battle of Zama
The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal...
. The poem ends with Scipio's triumphal return to Rome.
Silius' style is unlike Virgil in that he does not focus on a few central characters but divides his action up between many significant heroes. This encourages him to present describe important events from the Roman past as a reflection on the characters and their actions in the poem's present, echoing the Roman tradition of using exempla. While many important set pieces of epic are included, such as elaborated similes, ekphrases of objects, such as Hannibal's shield in 2.391-456, a nekyia, and divine participation in and prophecy of events, there are also important elements of historiography such as paired contrasting speeches and detailed geographical description. Allegory is particularly important in Silius, and he includes such figures as Fides, faith, in Book 2, Italia in 15, and Virtus and Voluptas also in Book 15, continuing a trend towards allegory which was significant in Statius
Statius
Publius Papinius Statius was a Roman poet of the 1st century CE . Besides his poetry in Latin, which include an epic poem, the Thebaid, a collection of occasional poetry, the Silvae, and the unfinished epic, the Achilleid, he is best known for his appearance as a major character in the Purgatory...
, Silius' contemporary. Silius' metrics and language can be closely compared to Virgilian usage, especially his use of spondee
Spondee
In poetry, a spondee is a metrical foot consisting of two long syllables, as determined by syllable weight in classical meters, or two stressed syllables, as determined by stress in modern meters...
s. Stoicism and stoic ethical thought are significant themes in the Punica. The war is configured as a trial of Roman virtus which must be overcome with hard work, akin to the Stoic ideal of overcoming adversity with inner courage and trial. The "choice of Hercules", a favorite Stoic parable, is given to Scipio in Book 15, and everywhere the war brings out moral lessons and discussions of Stoic concepts like emotion, reason, and destiny.
Silius' Influence
The only ancient authors to reference Silius are Martial, Pliny, and Sidonius ApollinarisSidonius Apollinaris
Gaius Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius or Saint Sidonius Apollinaris was a poet, diplomat, and bishop. Sidonius is "the single most important surviving author from fifth-century Gaul" according to Eric Goldberg...
. Pliny's judgment that Silius wrote poetry maiore cura quam ingenio, "with more eagerness than genius" has encouraged the view that Silius is a talented but mediocre and uninspired poet. The poem seems to have been mostly unknown in the Middle Ages. Petrarch
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca , known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism"...
's Africa was composed independently of the Punica, as the manuscript was discovered by Poggio Bracciolini in 1417 at St. Gall during the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
The Council of Constance is the 15th ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Three-Popes Controversy, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining Papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V.The Council also condemned and...
. Julius Caesar Scaliger
Julius Caesar Scaliger
Julius Caesar Scaliger was an Italian scholar and physician who spent a major part of his career in France. He employed the techniques and discoveries of Renaissance humanism to defend Aristotelianism against the new learning...
's harsh opinion of Silius damaged his reputation. Many authors were familiar with Silius' work, such as Montaigne, Milton
John Milton
John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, a scholarly man of letters, and a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell...
, Dryden
John Dryden
John Dryden was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden.Walter Scott called him "Glorious John." He was made Poet...
(who considered him better than Lucan), Gibbon
Gibbon
Gibbons are apes in the family Hylobatidae . The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number: Hylobates , Hoolock , Nomascus , and Symphalangus . The extinct Bunopithecus sericus is a gibbon or gibbon-like ape which, until recently, was thought to be closely related...
, and Alexander Pope
Alexander Pope
Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the third-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson...
. Joseph Addison
Joseph Addison
Joseph Addison was an English essayist, poet, playwright and politician. He was a man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison...
particularly includes many quotations of Silius in his Dialogue on Medals as does Thomas Macaulay in his works. Interest in Silius mostly vanished in the 19th century. As for visual arts, Raphael's Vision of the Knight is a treatment of Silius' choice of Scipio. Despite Silius' poor reputation, classical scholars with their renewed interest in later Imperial epic seem to be finally turning their attentions to Silius' poetry.