Sill (geology)
Encyclopedia
In geology
, a sill is a tabular sheet intrusion
that has intruded between older layers
of sedimentary rock
, beds of volcanic lava
or tuff
, or even along the direction of foliation
in metamorphic rock
. The term sill is synonymous with concordant intrusive sheet. This means that the sill does not cut across preexisting rocks, in contrast to dikes
which do cut across older rocks.
Sills are always parallel to beds (layers) of the surrounding country rock. Usually they are in a horizontal orientation, although tectonic processes can cause rotation of sills into near vertical orientations. They can be confused with solidified lava flows; however, there are several differences between them. Intruded sills will show partial melting and incorporation of the surrounding country rock
. On both the "upper" and "lower" contact surfaces of the country rock into which the sill has intruded, evidence of heating will be observed (contact metamorphism)
. Lava flows will show this evidence only on the lower side of the flow. In addition, lava flows will typically show evidence of vesicles
(bubbles) where gases escaped into the atmosphere
. Because sills generally form at depth (up to many kilometers), the pressure of overlying rock prevents this from happening much, if at all. Lava flows will also typically show evidence of weathering
on their upper surface, whereas sills, if still covered by country rock, typically do not.
deposits. Precambrian
examples include the Bushveld
, Insizwa
and the Great Dyke
complexes of southern Africa
, the Duluth intrusive complex
of the Superior District, and the Stillwater igneous complex
of the United States
. Phanerozoic
examples are usually smaller and include the Rùm
peridotite
complex of Scotland
and the Skaergaard igneous complex
of east Greenland
. These intrusion
s often contain concentrations of gold
, platinum
, chromium
and other rare elements.
and sills within the Karoo basin
. The geometry of large sill complexes in sedimentary basins has become clearer with the availability of 3D seismic reflection
data. Such data has shown that many sills have an overall saucer shape and that many others are at least in part transgressive.
of the previous glacier.
Geology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
, a sill is a tabular sheet intrusion
Sheet intrusion
A sheet intrusion is where a mass of molten magma takes advantage of a pre-existing linear feature in a host rock, such as a long rupture or fault, and forces its way into these spaces...
that has intruded between older layers
Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers...
of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution....
, beds of volcanic lava
Lava
Lava refers both to molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption and the resulting rock after solidification and cooling. This molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets, including Earth, and some of their satellites. When first erupted from a volcanic vent, lava is a liquid at...
or tuff
Tuff
Tuff is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly when used as construction material, although tufa also refers to a quite different rock. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered...
, or even along the direction of foliation
Foliation (geology)
Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in rocks. Foliation is common to rocks affected by regional metamorphic compression typical of orogenic belts. Rocks exhibiting foliation include the standard sequence formed by the prograde metamorphism of mudrocks; slate, phyllite, schist and...
in metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rock is the transformation of an existing rock type, the protolith, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". The protolith is subjected to heat and pressure causing profound physical and/or chemical change...
. The term sill is synonymous with concordant intrusive sheet. This means that the sill does not cut across preexisting rocks, in contrast to dikes
Dike (geology)
A dike or dyke in geology is a type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across* planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation...
which do cut across older rocks.
Sills are always parallel to beds (layers) of the surrounding country rock. Usually they are in a horizontal orientation, although tectonic processes can cause rotation of sills into near vertical orientations. They can be confused with solidified lava flows; however, there are several differences between them. Intruded sills will show partial melting and incorporation of the surrounding country rock
Country rock (geology)
Country rock is a geological term meaning the rock native to an area. It is similar and in many cases interchangeable with the terms basement and wall rocks....
. On both the "upper" and "lower" contact surfaces of the country rock into which the sill has intruded, evidence of heating will be observed (contact metamorphism)
Metamorphism
Metamorphism is the solid-state recrystallization of pre-existing rocks due to changes in physical and chemical conditions, primarily heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. Mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes can occur during this process...
. Lava flows will show this evidence only on the lower side of the flow. In addition, lava flows will typically show evidence of vesicles
Vesicular texture
Vesicular texture is a volcanic rock texture characterised by a rock being pitted with many cavities at its surface and inside. The texture is often found in extrusive aphanitic, or glassy, igneous rock...
(bubbles) where gases escaped into the atmosphere
Atmosphere
An atmosphere is a layer of gases that may surround a material body of sufficient mass, and that is held in place by the gravity of the body. An atmosphere may be retained for a longer duration, if the gravity is high and the atmosphere's temperature is low...
. Because sills generally form at depth (up to many kilometers), the pressure of overlying rock prevents this from happening much, if at all. Lava flows will also typically show evidence of weathering
Weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters...
on their upper surface, whereas sills, if still covered by country rock, typically do not.
Associated ore deposits
Certain layered intrusions are a variety of sill that often contain important oreOre
An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals with important elements including metals. The ores are extracted through mining; these are then refined to extract the valuable element....
deposits. Precambrian
Precambrian
The Precambrian is the name which describes the large span of time in Earth's history before the current Phanerozoic Eon, and is a Supereon divided into several eons of the geologic time scale...
examples include the Bushveld
Bushveld igneous complex
The Bushveld Igneous Complex is a large layered igneous intrusion within the Earth's crust which has been tilted and eroded and now outcrops around what appears to be the edge of a great geological basin, the Transvaal Basin. Located in South Africa, the BIC contains some of the richest ore...
, Insizwa
Insizwa
Insizwa is a genus of tephritid or fruit flies in the family Tephritidae....
and the Great Dyke
Great Dyke
The Great Dyke is a linear geological feature that trends nearly north-south through the centre of Zimbabwe passing just to the west of the capital, Harare. It consists of a band of short, narrow ridges and hills spanning for approximately . The hills become taller as the range goes north, and...
complexes of southern Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, the Duluth intrusive complex
Duluth Complex
The Duluth Complex, the related Beaver Bay Complex , and the associated North Shore Volcanic Group are rock formations which comprise much of the basement bedrock of the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota...
of the Superior District, and the Stillwater igneous complex
Stillwater igneous complex
The Stillwater igneous complex is a large layered intrusion located in southern Montana in Stillwater, Sweet Grass and Park Counties. The complex is exposed across 30 miles of the north flank of the Beartooth Mountain Range. The complex has extensive reserves of chromium ore and has a history of...
of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Phanerozoic
Phanerozoic
The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale, and the one during which abundant animal life has existed. It covers roughly 542 million years and goes back to the time when diverse hard-shelled animals first appeared...
examples are usually smaller and include the Rùm
Rùm
Rùm , a Scottish Gaelic name often anglicised to Rum) is one of the Small Isles of the Inner Hebrides, in the district of Lochaber, Scotland...
peridotite
Peridotite
A peridotite is a dense, coarse-grained igneous rock, consisting mostly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. Peridotite is ultramafic, as the rock contains less than 45% silica. It is high in magnesium, reflecting the high proportions of magnesium-rich olivine, with appreciable iron...
complex of Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
and the Skaergaard igneous complex
Skaergaard intrusion
The Skaergaard intrusion is a layered igneous intrusion in East Greenland. It comprises various rock types including gabbro, ferro diorite, anorthosite and granophyre.Discovered by Lawrence Wager...
of east Greenland
Greenland
Greenland is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for...
. These intrusion
Intrusion
An intrusion is liquid rock that forms under Earth's surface. Magma from under the surface is slowly pushed up from deep within the earth into any cracks or spaces it can find, sometimes pushing existing country rock out of the way, a process that can take millions of years. As the rock slowly...
s often contain concentrations of gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
, platinum
Platinum
Platinum is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pt and an atomic number of 78. Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina del Pinto, which is literally translated into "little silver of the Pinto River." It is a dense, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal...
, chromium
Chromium
Chromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable...
and other rare elements.
Transgressive sills
Despite their concordant nature, many large sills change stratigraphic level within the intruded sequence, with each concordant part of the intrusion linked by relatively short dike-like segments. Such sills are known as transgressive, examples include the Whin SillWhin Sill
The Whin Sill or Great Whin Sill is a tabular layer of the igneous rock dolerite in County Durham and Northumberland in the northeast of England. It lies partly in the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and partly in Northumberland National Park and stretches from Teesdale northwards...
and sills within the Karoo basin
Karoo Supergroup
The Karoo Supergroup is the largest stratigraphic unit in Southern Africa, covering almost two thirds of the present land surface, including central Cape Province, almost all of Orange Free State, western Natal, much of south-east Transvaal, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi...
. The geometry of large sill complexes in sedimentary basins has become clearer with the availability of 3D seismic reflection
Reflection seismology
Reflection seismology is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite/Tovex, a specialized air gun or a...
data. Such data has shown that many sills have an overall saucer shape and that many others are at least in part transgressive.
Other meanings
"Sill" may also refer to the rise in depth near the mouth of a fiord caused by the terminal moraineTerminal moraine
A terminal moraine, also called end moraine, is a moraine that forms at the end of the glacier called the snout.Terminal moraines mark the maximum advance of the glacier. An end moraine is at the present boundary of the glacier....
of the previous glacier.
See also
- BatholithBatholithA batholith is a large emplacement of igneous intrusive rock that forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth's crust...
- Stock
- DikeDike (geology)A dike or dyke in geology is a type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across* planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation...
- LaccolithLaccolithA laccolith is a sheet intrusion that has been injected between two layers of sedimentary rock. The pressure of the magma is high enough that the overlying strata are forced upward, giving the laccolith a dome or mushroom-like form with a generally planar base.Laccoliths tend to form at relatively...
- Sheet intrusionSheet intrusionA sheet intrusion is where a mass of molten magma takes advantage of a pre-existing linear feature in a host rock, such as a long rupture or fault, and forces its way into these spaces...