Sima Yi
Encyclopedia
Sima Yi was a general and politician of the state of Cao Wei
during the Three Kingdoms
era of Chinese history
. He is perhaps best known for defending Wei from Zhuge Liang
's Northern Expeditions. His success and subsequent rise in prominence paved the way for his grandson Sima Yan
's founding of the Jin Dynasty
, which would eventually bring an end to the Three Kingdoms era. In 265 after the Jin Dynasty was established, Sima Yi was posthumously honored
as Emperor Xuan of Jin with the temple name
of Gaozu.
ending with the character Da (達). Because of this, the brothers were known collectively as the "Eight Da of Sima" (司馬八達). This was a term of respect, as other groups of eight talented administrators in previous eras had been referred to in this way. His family resided in Luoyang
when Dong Zhuo
occupied the city, destroyed it, and moved the capital to Chang'an
. Sima Yi's elder brother, Sima Lang
led the family to their ancestral home in the Wen district (温縣), and then, correctly predicting that it would become a battlefield, moved them again to Liyang (黎陽). In 194, as Cao Cao
did battle with Lü Bu
, Sima Yi accompanied his family back to Wen district.
, Sima believed that the Han Dynasty would soon come to an end, and felt no motivation to join Cao, which had already taken control of the Han seat of government. He refused Cao's requests to serve, saying that he was suffering from a disease. Cao did not believe Sima's excuse, and sent agents to check on him at night. Sima, knowing this in advance, stayed in bed all night and did not move. In 208, Cao became Imperial Chancellor
and ordered Sima to serve him, saying "If he dallies, arrest him." Afraid of what would befall him, Sima finally accepted the position of Wenxueyuan (文学掾). However, according to Weilüe
, Cao Hong
, Cao Cao's younger cousin, requested the presence of Sima in order to start a friendship with the latter, who did not have a very high opinion of Cao Hong and feigned illness by carrying a cane in order to avoid meeting him. Cao Hong went to Cao Cao in anger and told him what had happened, after which Cao Cao directly requested the presence of Sima. Only then did Sima officially enter Cao Cao's service.
In the Chancellor's service, he rose through the ranks of Dongcaoyuan (東曹掾; in charge of bringing officials into service), Zhubo (主簿; an administrative position), and Sima (司馬; position in charge of aids and advisors). In 215, when Cao Cao defeated Zhang Lu and forced him to surrender, Sima advised that Cao Cao continue to advance south into Yi Province, since Liu Bei
had still not stabilized his control of that area. However, Cao Cao did not listen to his advice. Sima was among other advisors who urged for the implementation of the tuntian
system and for Cao Cao to take the position of Prince of Wei.
. When Cao Pi was designated Crown Prince of Wei in 216, Sima was made his secretary. When Cao Cao wavered on choosing between Cao Pi and his younger brother Cao Zhi
, Sima was believed to be among those who backed Cao Pi and helped him secure the succession. Due to the fact Sima had been a long time friend of Cao Pi since the latter held the position of General of the Household, he became greatly trusted when the latter ascended the throne. He was also involved in Cao Zhi's demotion and removal from politics.
In 225, Cao Pi advanced against Sun Quan
's Wu
, and entrusted Sima Yi with command over the capital in his absence. He compared Sima Yi to Xiao He
, whose quiet contributions behind the battle lines earned him much praise. Upon returning from the military expedition, Cao Pi once again praised his servant, saying "As I did battle in the East, you stayed in the capital and guarded our kingdom against Shu
in the West. When I go to battle in the West against Shu, I'll entrust you with defense against Wu in the East." Sima Yi was soon given the post of Lushang Shushi (録尚書事), which at that time held the same real power and responsibilities as Imperial Chancellor. Sima Yi's position within Wei was now all but unassailable.
to the care of Sima Yi, Cao Zhen
, and Chen Qun
. When Cao Rui became Emperor of Wei, he trusted Sima Yi greatly and appointed him Piaoqi General (骠骑大将军) and military commander of Yuzhou
and Jingzhou (督荊豫二州諸軍事) and was placed on the border between Wei and Wu to defend against Sun Quan's forces.
surrendered to Wei and Cao Pi entrusted him as Administrator of Xincheng. Sima Yi did not trust him, and argued his case to Cao Pi, but his advice was not taken. In 227, Meng Da began making overtures to Wu and Shu, promising to turn against Wei when an opportunity presented itself. He was very slow to move in response to Zhuge Liang's urgings, however, and Zhuge Liang
attempted to spur him into action by leaking Meng Da's rebellious intentions to Shen Yi, the administrator of Weixing (魏興). When Meng Da learned that his plans had been discovered, he began raising troops in preparation for action.
Fearing quick action by Meng Da, Sima Yi sent him a letter saying "Long ago, you surrendered to our kingdom, and we put you in charge of the defense of our borders against Shu. The people of Shu are foolish, and still hate you for not coming to Guan Yu
's assistance. Kongming
is the same, and he has been looking for a way to destroy you. As you probably suspect, the news of your rebellion is only his plot." Meng Da now believed that he was safe, and did not rush his preparations. He believed that Sima Yi, posted on the border of Wei and Wu, would require a month to go to Cao Rui and request permission to raise troops, then to reach Xincheng. However, Sima Yi was already on his way and reached Xincheng in 8 days, quickly defeating the unprepared Meng Da, who was killed in the battle. This action contributed indirectly to the success at the Battle of Jieting
and earned Sima Yi much praise.
, who had been leading the defense against Zhuge Liang's Northern expeditions died in 231, Sima Yi took his position in command, and faced Zhuge Liang's armies for the first time in battle. Sima Yi kept his armies safe in fortifications, his strategy being to wait out the Shu armies who had a very difficult time keeping their armies supplied with provisions. He did not attempt to do battle with Zhuge Liang whatsoever, and was mocked by his own subordinates, who claimed he was the laughing stock of the world. Unable to resist doing battle any longer, he allowed his generals to attack Shu's positions, but they were badly defeated and suffered losses including 3000 soldiers, 5000 suits of iron armor, and 3000 crossbows. When Zhuge Liang finally did retreat, Sima Yi ordered Zhang He
to pursue, who was ambushed and killed.
The second battle between Sima Yi and Zhuge Liang was in 234. Cao Rui again identified Shu's problem being keeping their army supplied, and ordered Sima Yi to keep his armies fortified and wait the enemy out. The two armies faced each other at Wuzhang Plains
. Although being challenged many times by Zhuge Liang, Sima Yi did not send his armies to attack. To provoke Sima Yi, Zhuge Liang sent women's clothes to him, suggesting that he was a woman for not daring to attack. The Wei officers were enraged by this, but Sima Yi would not be provoked. To appease his officers, Sima Yi asked the Wei Emperor Cao Rui for permission to engage the Shu forces. Cao Rui, understanding the situation, sent his advisor Xin Pi to Sima Yi telling the Wei forces to be patient. In an attempt to engage the Wei forces, Zhuge Liang sent Sima Yi an emissary urging him to battle. Sima Yi, however, would not discuss military matters with the emissary, instead inquired about Zhuge Liang's tasks. The emissary replied that Zhuge Liang personally manages matters both big and small in the military, from military tactics to meals for the night, but he consumes very little. Sima Yi then told an aide that Zhuge Liang would not last long.
Following Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu forces quietly withdrew from their camps while keeping Zhuge Liang's death a secret. Sima Yi, convinced by the locals that Zhuge Liang had died, gave chase to the retreating Shu forces. Jiang Wei then had Yang Yi turn around and pretend to strike. Seeing this, Sima Yi feared that Zhuge Liang only pretended he was dead to lure him out, and immediately retreated. Word that Sima Yi fled from the already dead Zhuge Liang spread, spawning a popular saying, "A dead Zhuge scares away a living Zhongda" (死諸葛嚇走活仲達), referring to Sima Yi's courtesy name. When Sima Yi heard of such ridicule, he laughingly responded, "I can predict the living, but not the dead." (帝聞而笑曰：「吾便料生，不便料死故也。」)
had failed to defeat the forces of Gongsun Yuan
in Liaodong, and Gongsun Yuan had declared himself Prince of Yan, Cao Rui put Sima Yi in charge of the next expedition against him. Sima Yi defeated Gongsun Yuan twice on the field of battle, and forced him to retreat to Xiangping (襄平), where he prepared for siege. Long rains brought a temporary break from the fighting, but as soon as they lifted, Sima Yi launched an all out attack. Gongsun Yuan and his sons were killed while attempting to flee.
. He wanted to entrust Cao Fang to his uncle Cao Yu (曹宇), to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi (who was then with his troops at Ji (汲縣, in modern Xinxiang, Henan, and to who Liu Fang and Sun Zi were close to) regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency.
Initially, Cao Shuang and Sima Yi shared power, but Cao Shuang quickly used a number of political maneuvers to honor Sima with honorific titles including Grand Tutor
while stripping his actual power. Cao Shuang then made all important decisions and stopped consulting Sima. Quickly, Cao's associates, including Deng Yang (鄧颺), Li Sheng (李勝), He Yan (何晏), and Ding Mi (丁謐), who were known for their talents but lack of wisdom, all became powerful, and they excluded other officials who would not associate with them from positions of power. Sima was still given military authority (including command in repelling a major Eastern Wu attack in 241), but no real authority on governance.
In 249, Sima made his move. While Cao Fang and Cao Shuang were outside the capital on an official visit to Cao Rui's tomb, Sima, with support from a number of anti-Cao Shuang officials, claiming to have an order from Empress Dowager Guo to do so, closed all city gates of Luoyang and submitted a report to Cao Fang, accusing Cao Shuang of dominating and corrupting the government and demanding that Cao Shuang and his brothers be deposed. Cao Shuang was stricken by panic and did not know how to react, and even though his senior advisor Huan Fan recommended that he take Cao Fang to the secondary capital Xuchang and then resist Sima with his troops, Cao chose to surrender his troops and powers, under promise by Sima that he would still be able to maintain his wealth. However, Sima soon reneged on the promise and had Cao Shuang and his associates, as well as their clans, executed on charges of treason. Although not a popular theory, some believe this intention of betrayal to the Cao line stretched as far back as Sima Yi's days of serving the original Wei ruler, Cao Cao. This is because Cao Cao once told Cao Pi that Sima Yi was hiding an ambition, and would not die merely serving another.
After Sima Yi's takeover, he carefully but inexorably removed people who were actual or potential threats to his authority. Yet, at the same time, he strived to distance himself from the patterns followed by the man his actions seemed to mirror most - Cao Cao; when Cao Fang offered him the nine bestowments, he strenuously refused them, only accepting them after more than three offers. The 18-year-old Cao Fang left himself in a vulnerable position by going so far as to grant one of his followers such influence; Sima, however, had the support of the people by removing corruption and inefficiency that characterized Cao Shuang's regency and promoting a number of honest officials. He was offered the title of Imperial Chancellor, but refused.
Having secured his family's control of Cao Wei
, Sima Yi died in 251, succeeded by his son Sima Shi
.
toward a sympathetic view of Shu Han. Before this change, Sima Yi was seen as a righteous figure in the Book of Jin
and was practically deified. Afterwards, Sima Yi began to be vilified; a view which was epitomized in the classic novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms
. In the novel, Sima Yi was portrayed as the dedicated servant of Cao Cao, obsessed with his ideals even to the point of honing his example of usurping power against a weak ruler and using it to bring down Cao Cao's own descendants. In terms of history, many of the accounts are either contradicted or simply do not exist and were most likely borrowed from either the elements of Luo Guanzhong
's imagination or from folk tales that had been passed down through the ages.
As Sima Yi's contributions toward Cao Wei are substantial, the debate of his legacy lies within what motivated his actions. A debate, that has continued to this day and will most likely never be resolved, as to whether Sima Yi was acting in a benevolent way, such as Huo Guang
did during the Han Dynasty, or whether he was acting out of pure ambition, comparable to Wang Mang
's short-lived Xin Dynasty
. However, he died only a few years after forcibly regaining his power from Cao Shuang, leaving no definitive answer to his intentions for future generations.
and Warriors Orochi
video game series.
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering
there is a card named "Sima Yi, Wei Field Marshal", in the Portal Three Kingdoms
set.
Chan Mou
's manhua
series The Ravages of Time
is another fictionalized series of the Three Kingdoms with Sima Yi as the central character.
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
during the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
era of Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
. He is perhaps best known for defending Wei from Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
's Northern Expeditions. His success and subsequent rise in prominence paved the way for his grandson Sima Yan
Emperor Wu of Jìn
Emperor Wu of Jin, , personal name Sima Yan , style name Anshi , was the grandson of Sima Yi and son of Sima Zhao. He became the first emperor of the Jin Dynasty after forcing Cao Huan, last ruler of the state of Cao Wei, to abdicate to him. He reigned from 265 to 290, and after conquering the...
's founding of the Jin Dynasty
Jìn Dynasty (265-420)
The Jìn Dynasty , was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the Dynasty, the first being Western Jin and the second Eastern Jin...
, which would eventually bring an end to the Three Kingdoms era. In 265 after the Jin Dynasty was established, Sima Yi was posthumously honored
Posthumous name
A posthumous name is an honorary name given to royalty, nobles, and sometimes others, in East Asia after the person's death, and is used almost exclusively instead of one's personal name or other official titles during his life...
as Emperor Xuan of Jin with the temple name
Temple name
Temple names are commonly used when naming most Chinese, Korean , and Vietnamese royalty. They should not be confused with era names. Compared to posthumous names, the use of temple names is more exclusive...
of Gaozu.
Early life
Sima Yi was one of eight brothers, all of whom were famous due to their lineage. Each of them had a Chinese style nameChinese style name
A Chinese style name, sometimes also known as a courtesy name , is a given name to be used later in life. After 20 years of age, the zì is assigned in place of one's given name as a symbol of adulthood and respect...
ending with the character Da (達). Because of this, the brothers were known collectively as the "Eight Da of Sima" (司馬八達). This was a term of respect, as other groups of eight talented administrators in previous eras had been referred to in this way. His family resided in Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
when Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo
Dong Zhuo was a politician and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He seized control of the capital city Luoyang in 189 when it was in a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling and a clash between the eunuch faction and some court officials led by...
occupied the city, destroyed it, and moved the capital to Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
. Sima Yi's elder brother, Sima Lang
Sima Lang
Sima Lang was a politician of the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:When Luoyang fell under the control of the warlord Dong Zhuo, Sima Lang was able to escape with his entire family...
led the family to their ancestral home in the Wen district (温縣), and then, correctly predicting that it would become a battlefield, moved them again to Liyang (黎陽). In 194, as Cao Cao
Cao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
did battle with Lü Bu
Lü Bu
Lü Bu was a military general and later a minor warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, Lü Bu was highly-skilled in horse-riding and archery, and was thus nicknamed "Flying General"...
, Sima Yi accompanied his family back to Wen district.
Service under Cao Cao
Accounts on how Sima joined the service of Cao differ, but he accepted his first position in Cao's camp at the age of 30. According to the Book of JinBook of Jin
The Book of Jin is one of the official Chinese historical works. It covers the history of Jin Dynasty from 265 to 420, which written by a number of officials commissioned by the court of Tang Dynasty, with the lead editor being the Prime Minister Fang Xuanling, drawing mostly from the official...
, Sima believed that the Han Dynasty would soon come to an end, and felt no motivation to join Cao, which had already taken control of the Han seat of government. He refused Cao's requests to serve, saying that he was suffering from a disease. Cao did not believe Sima's excuse, and sent agents to check on him at night. Sima, knowing this in advance, stayed in bed all night and did not move. In 208, Cao became Imperial Chancellor
Chancellor of China
The Chancellor , variously translated as Prime Minister, Chancellor of State, Premier or Chief Councillor, was a generic name given to the highest-ranking official in the imperial government in ancient China...
and ordered Sima to serve him, saying "If he dallies, arrest him." Afraid of what would befall him, Sima finally accepted the position of Wenxueyuan (文学掾). However, according to Weilüe
Weilüe
The Weilüe written by Yu Huan between CE 239, the end of Emperor Ming’s reign, and 265 CE, the end of the Cao Wei . Although not an "official historian," Yu Huan has always been held in high regard amongst Chinese scholars....
, Cao Hong
Cao Hong
Cao Hong was a military general of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He started his career during the late Han Dynasty under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his cousin.-Early career:...
, Cao Cao's younger cousin, requested the presence of Sima in order to start a friendship with the latter, who did not have a very high opinion of Cao Hong and feigned illness by carrying a cane in order to avoid meeting him. Cao Hong went to Cao Cao in anger and told him what had happened, after which Cao Cao directly requested the presence of Sima. Only then did Sima officially enter Cao Cao's service.
In the Chancellor's service, he rose through the ranks of Dongcaoyuan (東曹掾; in charge of bringing officials into service), Zhubo (主簿; an administrative position), and Sima (司馬; position in charge of aids and advisors). In 215, when Cao Cao defeated Zhang Lu and forced him to surrender, Sima advised that Cao Cao continue to advance south into Yi Province, since Liu Bei
Liu Bei
Liu Bei , also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history...
had still not stabilized his control of that area. However, Cao Cao did not listen to his advice. Sima was among other advisors who urged for the implementation of the tuntian
Tuntian
The Tuntian or Duntian system was a system of government-encouraged agriculture originated in the Western Han Dynasty period of Chinese history...
system and for Cao Cao to take the position of Prince of Wei.
Service under Cao Pi
Even before Cao Cao's death, Sima Yi was close to his successor, Cao PiCao Pi
Cao Pi , formally known as Emperor Wen of Wei, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery , he was the second son of the late Han Dynasty warlord Cao Cao.Cao Pi, like his father, was a poet...
. When Cao Pi was designated Crown Prince of Wei in 216, Sima was made his secretary. When Cao Cao wavered on choosing between Cao Pi and his younger brother Cao Zhi
Cao Zhi
Cao Zhi was a poet who lived during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. His poetry style, greatly revered during the Jin Dynasty and Southern and Northern Dynasties, came to be known as the Jian'an style....
, Sima was believed to be among those who backed Cao Pi and helped him secure the succession. Due to the fact Sima had been a long time friend of Cao Pi since the latter held the position of General of the Household, he became greatly trusted when the latter ascended the throne. He was also involved in Cao Zhi's demotion and removal from politics.
In 225, Cao Pi advanced against Sun Quan
Sun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
's Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
, and entrusted Sima Yi with command over the capital in his absence. He compared Sima Yi to Xiao He
Xiao He
Xiao He was a Chinese statesman who lived during the early Han Dynasty. He served Liu Bang during the insurrection against the Qin Dynasty, and fought on Liu's side in the Chu–Han contention against Xiang Yu. After the founding of the Han Dynasty, Xiao He became chancellor and held office until...
, whose quiet contributions behind the battle lines earned him much praise. Upon returning from the military expedition, Cao Pi once again praised his servant, saying "As I did battle in the East, you stayed in the capital and guarded our kingdom against Shu
Shu Han
Shu Han was one of the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period, after the fall of the Han Dynasty. The state was based on areas around Sichuan, which was then known as Shu...
in the West. When I go to battle in the West against Shu, I'll entrust you with defense against Wu in the East." Sima Yi was soon given the post of Lushang Shushi (録尚書事), which at that time held the same real power and responsibilities as Imperial Chancellor. Sima Yi's position within Wei was now all but unassailable.
Service under Cao Rui
In 226, as Cao Pi lay on his deathbed, he entrusted his successor Cao RuiCao Rui
Cao Rui , formally known as Emperor Ming of Wei, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was a son of Cao Wei's first emperor Cao Pi according to Liu Song dynasty historian, Pei Songzhi, but was a son of Yuan Xi according to modern...
to the care of Sima Yi, Cao Zhen
Cao Zhen
Cao Zhen was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was also a distant nephew of Cao Cao, though the latter treated him like a son. Cao Zhen participated in many...
, and Chen Qun
Chen Qun
Chen Qun was a minister of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history.Chen Qun initiated the Nine-rank system for civil service nomination in Cao Wei. Following the death of the ruler Cao Pi, Chen Qun became the Guardian of Cao Wei's military forces...
. When Cao Rui became Emperor of Wei, he trusted Sima Yi greatly and appointed him Piaoqi General (骠骑大将军) and military commander of Yuzhou
Yuzhou
Yuzhou is a county-level city in Xuchang, central Henan province in the People's Republic of China...
and Jingzhou (督荊豫二州諸軍事) and was placed on the border between Wei and Wu to defend against Sun Quan's forces.
Battle of Xincheng
In 220, when Meng DaMeng Da
Meng Da was a military general who served under Liu Zhang, Liu Bei, Cao Pi, and Cao Rui during the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Takeover of Yi Province:...
surrendered to Wei and Cao Pi entrusted him as Administrator of Xincheng. Sima Yi did not trust him, and argued his case to Cao Pi, but his advice was not taken. In 227, Meng Da began making overtures to Wu and Shu, promising to turn against Wei when an opportunity presented itself. He was very slow to move in response to Zhuge Liang's urgings, however, and Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
attempted to spur him into action by leaking Meng Da's rebellious intentions to Shen Yi, the administrator of Weixing (魏興). When Meng Da learned that his plans had been discovered, he began raising troops in preparation for action.
Fearing quick action by Meng Da, Sima Yi sent him a letter saying "Long ago, you surrendered to our kingdom, and we put you in charge of the defense of our borders against Shu. The people of Shu are foolish, and still hate you for not coming to Guan Yu
Guan Yu
Guan Yu was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the...
's assistance. Kongming
Zhuge Liang
Zhuge Liang was a chancellor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era....
is the same, and he has been looking for a way to destroy you. As you probably suspect, the news of your rebellion is only his plot." Meng Da now believed that he was safe, and did not rush his preparations. He believed that Sima Yi, posted on the border of Wei and Wu, would require a month to go to Cao Rui and request permission to raise troops, then to reach Xincheng. However, Sima Yi was already on his way and reached Xincheng in 8 days, quickly defeating the unprepared Meng Da, who was killed in the battle. This action contributed indirectly to the success at the Battle of Jieting
Battle of Jieting
The Battle of Jieting was fought between the states of Cao Wei and Shu Han in 228 during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle was part of the first Northern Expedition led by Shu's chancellor Zhuge Liang to attack Wei...
and earned Sima Yi much praise.
Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions
When Cao ZhenCao Zhen
Cao Zhen was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He served the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was also a distant nephew of Cao Cao, though the latter treated him like a son. Cao Zhen participated in many...
, who had been leading the defense against Zhuge Liang's Northern expeditions died in 231, Sima Yi took his position in command, and faced Zhuge Liang's armies for the first time in battle. Sima Yi kept his armies safe in fortifications, his strategy being to wait out the Shu armies who had a very difficult time keeping their armies supplied with provisions. He did not attempt to do battle with Zhuge Liang whatsoever, and was mocked by his own subordinates, who claimed he was the laughing stock of the world. Unable to resist doing battle any longer, he allowed his generals to attack Shu's positions, but they were badly defeated and suffered losses including 3000 soldiers, 5000 suits of iron armor, and 3000 crossbows. When Zhuge Liang finally did retreat, Sima Yi ordered Zhang He
Zhang He
Zhang He was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He continued serving the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period until his death....
to pursue, who was ambushed and killed.
The second battle between Sima Yi and Zhuge Liang was in 234. Cao Rui again identified Shu's problem being keeping their army supplied, and ordered Sima Yi to keep his armies fortified and wait the enemy out. The two armies faced each other at Wuzhang Plains
Battle of Wuzhang Plains
The Battle of Wuzhang Plains was a standoff between the contending states of Cao Wei and Shu Han in 234 during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
. Although being challenged many times by Zhuge Liang, Sima Yi did not send his armies to attack. To provoke Sima Yi, Zhuge Liang sent women's clothes to him, suggesting that he was a woman for not daring to attack. The Wei officers were enraged by this, but Sima Yi would not be provoked. To appease his officers, Sima Yi asked the Wei Emperor Cao Rui for permission to engage the Shu forces. Cao Rui, understanding the situation, sent his advisor Xin Pi to Sima Yi telling the Wei forces to be patient. In an attempt to engage the Wei forces, Zhuge Liang sent Sima Yi an emissary urging him to battle. Sima Yi, however, would not discuss military matters with the emissary, instead inquired about Zhuge Liang's tasks. The emissary replied that Zhuge Liang personally manages matters both big and small in the military, from military tactics to meals for the night, but he consumes very little. Sima Yi then told an aide that Zhuge Liang would not last long.
Following Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu forces quietly withdrew from their camps while keeping Zhuge Liang's death a secret. Sima Yi, convinced by the locals that Zhuge Liang had died, gave chase to the retreating Shu forces. Jiang Wei then had Yang Yi turn around and pretend to strike. Seeing this, Sima Yi feared that Zhuge Liang only pretended he was dead to lure him out, and immediately retreated. Word that Sima Yi fled from the already dead Zhuge Liang spread, spawning a popular saying, "A dead Zhuge scares away a living Zhongda" (死諸葛嚇走活仲達), referring to Sima Yi's courtesy name. When Sima Yi heard of such ridicule, he laughingly responded, "I can predict the living, but not the dead." (帝聞而笑曰：「吾便料生，不便料死故也。」)
Expedition against Gongsun Yuan
After Guanqiu JianGuanqiu Jian
Guanqiu Jian , style name Zhonggong , was a military general of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
had failed to defeat the forces of Gongsun Yuan
Gongsun Yuan
Gongsun Yuan , style name Wenyi , was a warlord and vassal of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
in Liaodong, and Gongsun Yuan had declared himself Prince of Yan, Cao Rui put Sima Yi in charge of the next expedition against him. Sima Yi defeated Gongsun Yuan twice on the field of battle, and forced him to retreat to Xiangping (襄平), where he prepared for siege. Long rains brought a temporary break from the fighting, but as soon as they lifted, Sima Yi launched an all out attack. Gongsun Yuan and his sons were killed while attempting to flee.
Service under Cao Fang and coup d'état
As Cao Rui lay on his deathbed, he had doubts about Sima Yi, and initially planned to exclude him from the regency of his successor Cao FangCao Fang
Cao Fang , formally known as Duke Li of Shaoling, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He retained the title Prince of Qi after he was deposed by the regent Sima Shi...
. He wanted to entrust Cao Fang to his uncle Cao Yu (曹宇), to serve as the lead regent, along with Xiahou Xian (夏侯獻), Cao Shuang, Cao Zhao (曹肇), and Qin Lang (秦朗). However, his trusted officials Liu Fang (劉放) and Sun Zi (孫資) were unfriendly with Xiahou and Cao Zhao and were apprehensive about their becoming regents, and managed to persuade him to make Cao Shuang (with whom they were friendly) and Sima Yi (who was then with his troops at Ji (汲縣, in modern Xinxiang, Henan, and to who Liu Fang and Sun Zi were close to) regents instead. Cao Yu, Cao Zhao, and Qin were excluded from the regency.
Initially, Cao Shuang and Sima Yi shared power, but Cao Shuang quickly used a number of political maneuvers to honor Sima with honorific titles including Grand Tutor
Government of the Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty of ancient China was the second imperial dynasty of China, following the Qin Dynasty . It was divided into the periods of Western Han and Eastern Han , briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of Wang Mang...
while stripping his actual power. Cao Shuang then made all important decisions and stopped consulting Sima. Quickly, Cao's associates, including Deng Yang (鄧颺), Li Sheng (李勝), He Yan (何晏), and Ding Mi (丁謐), who were known for their talents but lack of wisdom, all became powerful, and they excluded other officials who would not associate with them from positions of power. Sima was still given military authority (including command in repelling a major Eastern Wu attack in 241), but no real authority on governance.
Incident at Gaoping Tomb
In 244, Cao Shuang, who wanted to garner for himself a military reputation as well, made a major attack against Shu Han's major border city of Hanzhong (in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi), without careful logistics planning. The battles themselves were inconclusive, but after Cao Wei forces ran out of food supplies, Cao Shuang was forced to withdraw at great loss of life. Despite his failure on the battlefield, however, Cao Shuang held onto power firmly. In 247, Sima, upset at his actual powerlessness, claimed that he was ill and retired from government service. Cao Shuang sent Li Sheng to determine whether or not Sima Yi was truly ill, and Sima Yi deceived him by acting senile in his presence.In 249, Sima made his move. While Cao Fang and Cao Shuang were outside the capital on an official visit to Cao Rui's tomb, Sima, with support from a number of anti-Cao Shuang officials, claiming to have an order from Empress Dowager Guo to do so, closed all city gates of Luoyang and submitted a report to Cao Fang, accusing Cao Shuang of dominating and corrupting the government and demanding that Cao Shuang and his brothers be deposed. Cao Shuang was stricken by panic and did not know how to react, and even though his senior advisor Huan Fan recommended that he take Cao Fang to the secondary capital Xuchang and then resist Sima with his troops, Cao chose to surrender his troops and powers, under promise by Sima that he would still be able to maintain his wealth. However, Sima soon reneged on the promise and had Cao Shuang and his associates, as well as their clans, executed on charges of treason. Although not a popular theory, some believe this intention of betrayal to the Cao line stretched as far back as Sima Yi's days of serving the original Wei ruler, Cao Cao. This is because Cao Cao once told Cao Pi that Sima Yi was hiding an ambition, and would not die merely serving another.
After Sima Yi's takeover, he carefully but inexorably removed people who were actual or potential threats to his authority. Yet, at the same time, he strived to distance himself from the patterns followed by the man his actions seemed to mirror most - Cao Cao; when Cao Fang offered him the nine bestowments, he strenuously refused them, only accepting them after more than three offers. The 18-year-old Cao Fang left himself in a vulnerable position by going so far as to grant one of his followers such influence; Sima, however, had the support of the people by removing corruption and inefficiency that characterized Cao Shuang's regency and promoting a number of honest officials. He was offered the title of Imperial Chancellor, but refused.
Wang Ling's case
In 249, the powerful general Wang Ling, who was in charge of the key southeastern city of Shouchun (壽春, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) began to plan a revolt against Sima's hold on power, in association with Cao Biao (曹彪), the Prince of Chu and a son of Cao Cao (whom he planned to replace Cao Fang with as emperor). In 251, Wang was ready to carry out his plans when his associates Huang Hua (黃華) and Yang Hong (楊弘) leaked the plan to Sima. Sima quickly advanced east before Wang could be ready and promised to pardon him. Wang knew that he was not ready to resist, so he submitted, but Sima again reneged on his promise and forced Wang and Cao Biao to commit suicide. Wang's clan and the clans of his associates were all slaughtered.Having secured his family's control of Cao Wei
Cao Wei
Cao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid...
, Sima Yi died in 251, succeeded by his son Sima Shi
Sima Shi
Sima Shi , style name Ziyuan , was a military general and regent of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. In 249, he assisted his father Sima Yi in overthrowing the emperor Cao Fang's regent Cao Shuang, allowing the Sima family to become paramount authority in the state, and he...
.
Family
- Ancestors:
- Sima Jun (司馬鈞), great-great-grandfather, served as General Who Conquers the West during the reign of Emperor An of HanEmperor An of HanEmperor Ān of Hàn, ch. 漢安帝, py. hàn ān dì, wg. Han An-ti, was an emperor of the Chinese Hàn Dynasty and the sixth emperor of the Eastern Hàn period ruling from 106 to 125...
- Sima Liang (司馬量), great-grandfather, served as Prefect of Yuzhang
- Sima Jun, grandfather, served as Prefect of Yingchuan
- Sima Jun (司馬鈞), great-great-grandfather, served as General Who Conquers the West during the reign of Emperor An of Han
- Father: Sima FangSima FangSima Fang was a politician during the Han Dynasty era of Chinese history. He was the son of Sima Juan, the father of Sima Yi, and the grandfather of Sima Shi and Sima Zhao.-References:*Fang Xuanling, Book of Jin vol...
, served as Intendant of Capital City
- Siblings:
- Sima LangSima LangSima Lang was a politician of the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.-Biography:When Luoyang fell under the control of the warlord Dong Zhuo, Sima Lang was able to escape with his entire family...
, older brother, served Cao WeiCao WeiCao Wei was one of the states that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period. With the capital at Luoyang, the state was established by Cao Pi in 220, based upon the foundations that his father Cao Cao laid... - Sima FuSima FuSima Fu was a politician of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history.-Biography:Sima Fu was a younger brother of Sima Yi, and for this reason he served the state of Cao Wei. It was said that although he did not have the extraordinary abilities of his older brother, he was well...
, younger brother, served Cao Wei - Sima Kui (司馬馗), younger brother
- Sima Xun (司馬恂), younger brother
- Sima Jin (司馬進), younger brother
- Sima Tong (司馬通), younger brother
- Sima Min (司馬敏), younger brother
- Sima Lang
- Spouses:
- Zhang ChunhuaZhang ChunhuaZhang Chunhua was the wife of the Cao Wei general Sima Yi during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. She was known to be wise and capable, but also ruthless at times.-Biography:...
, bore Sima Shi, Sima Zhao, Sima Gan and Princess Nanyang, posthumously honoured as Empress Xuanmu - Concubine Fu (伏貴妃), bore Sima Liang, Sima Zhou, Sima Jing and Sima Jun
- Lady Zhang (張夫人), bore Sima Rong
- Lady Bai (柏夫人), bore Sima Lun
- Zhang Chunhua
- Children:
- Sons:
- Sima ShiSima ShiSima Shi , style name Ziyuan , was a military general and regent of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. In 249, he assisted his father Sima Yi in overthrowing the emperor Cao Fang's regent Cao Shuang, allowing the Sima family to become paramount authority in the state, and he...
, regent of Cao Wei, posthumously honoured as Emperor Jing of Jin - Sima ZhaoSima ZhaoSima Zhao was a military general, politician and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
, regent of Cao Wei, granted title Prince of Jin, posthumously honoured as Emperor Wen of Jin. Fathered Sima YanEmperor Wu of JìnEmperor Wu of Jin, , personal name Sima Yan , style name Anshi , was the grandson of Sima Yi and son of Sima Zhao. He became the first emperor of the Jin Dynasty after forcing Cao Huan, last ruler of the state of Cao Wei, to abdicate to him. He reigned from 265 to 290, and after conquering the...
. - Sima Gan (司馬榦), Prince of Pingyuan
- Sima LiangSima LiangSima Liang , courtesy name Ziyi , formally Prince Wencheng of Ru'nan , was briefly a regent during the reign of Emperor Hui during Jin Dynasty . He was the first of the eight princes commonly associated with the War of the Eight Princes.-Biography:Sima Liang was the fourth son of Sima Yi, by his...
, Prince Wencheng of Runan, was involved in the War of the Eight PrincesWar of the Eight PrincesThe War of the Eight Princes or Rebellion of the Eight Kings or Rebellion of the Eight Princes was a civil war for power among princes and dukes of the Chinese Jin Dynasty from AD 291 to AD 306. It was fought mostly in northern China and devastated the country, later triggering the Wu Hu ravaging... - Sima ZhouSima ZhouSima Zhou was an official of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the sixth son of Sima Yi. Sima Zhou was known in Cao Wei as the "Fire General"...
, Prince Wu of Langya, grandfather of Emperor Yuan of JinEmperor Yuan of JinEmperor Yuan of Jin , personal name Sima Rui , courtesy name Jingwen , was an emperor of the Jin Dynasty and the first of the Eastern Jin Dynasty... - Sima Jing (司馬京), Marquis of Qinghuiting
- Sima Jun (司馬駿), Prince Wu of Fufeng
- Sima Rong (司馬肜), Prince Xiao of Liang
- Sima LunSima LunSima Lun , courtesy name Ziyi , was titled the Prince of Zhao and the usurper of the Jin Dynasty from February 3 to May 30, 301...
, Prince of Zhao, was involved in the War of the Eight Princes
- Sima Shi
- Daughters:
- Princess Nanyang (南陽公主), personal name unknown
- Princess Gaoling (高陸公主), personal name unknown
- Sons:
Legacy
After the fall of the Western Jin Dynasty, the belief began to shift from the popular ideal that Wei was the rightful successor to the HanHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
toward a sympathetic view of Shu Han. Before this change, Sima Yi was seen as a righteous figure in the Book of Jin
Book of Jin
The Book of Jin is one of the official Chinese historical works. It covers the history of Jin Dynasty from 265 to 420, which written by a number of officials commissioned by the court of Tang Dynasty, with the lead editor being the Prime Minister Fang Xuanling, drawing mostly from the official...
and was practically deified. Afterwards, Sima Yi began to be vilified; a view which was epitomized in the classic novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based on the events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in...
. In the novel, Sima Yi was portrayed as the dedicated servant of Cao Cao, obsessed with his ideals even to the point of honing his example of usurping power against a weak ruler and using it to bring down Cao Cao's own descendants. In terms of history, many of the accounts are either contradicted or simply do not exist and were most likely borrowed from either the elements of Luo Guanzhong
Luo Guanzhong
Luo Ben , better known by his style name Luo Guanzhong , was a Chinese writer of the early Ming Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was also known as Huhai Sanren...
's imagination or from folk tales that had been passed down through the ages.
As Sima Yi's contributions toward Cao Wei are substantial, the debate of his legacy lies within what motivated his actions. A debate, that has continued to this day and will most likely never be resolved, as to whether Sima Yi was acting in a benevolent way, such as Huo Guang
Huo Guang
Huo Guang , courtesy name Zimeng was a Western Han statesman who was a rare example in Chinese history of a powerful official who deposed an emperor for the good of the state rather than to usurp the throne...
did during the Han Dynasty, or whether he was acting out of pure ambition, comparable to Wang Mang
Wang Mang
Wang Mang , courtesy name Jujun , was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family and founded the Xin Dynasty , ruling AD 9–23. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow and his rule marks the separation between the Western Han Dynasty and Eastern Han Dynasty...
's short-lived Xin Dynasty
Xin Dynasty
The Xin Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty which lasted from AD 9 to 23. It followed the Western Han Dynasty and preceded the Eastern Han Dynasty....
. However, he died only a few years after forcibly regaining his power from Cao Shuang, leaving no definitive answer to his intentions for future generations.
Legends
One legend about Sima Yi is that he could turn his head 180° around on his neck to look backwards without turning his body. This characteristic was called "the turning-back of the wolf" (狼顧) supposedly based on the fact that wolves are cautious and aware of everything going on around them as though they had eyes in the back of their heads. It is said that Cao Cao heard this rumor and wanted to test it for himself. According to the legend, he came up behind Sima Yi and called out his name, and indeed his head did turn completely around. According to the Book of Jin, when Cao Cao saw this he grew cautious of Sima Yi, saying "This man is hiding great ambition". Cao Pi would later say of Sima Yi "This man probably has no intention of ending his life as a mere servant".Modern references
Sima Yi appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty WarriorsDynasty Warriors
is a series of tactical action video games created by Omega Force and Koei. The award-winning series is a spin-off of Koei's turn-based strategy Romance of the Three Kingdoms series, based loosely around the Chinese classical novel of the same name. The first game titled Dynasty Warriors,...
and Warriors Orochi
Warriors Orochi
, is a PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 hack and slash video game developed by Koei and Omega Force. It is a crossover of two of Koei's popular video game series, Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors...
video game series.
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering
Magic: The Gathering
Magic: The Gathering , also known as Magic, is the first collectible trading card game created by mathematics professor Richard Garfield and introduced in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast. Magic continues to thrive, with approximately twelve million players as of 2011...
there is a card named "Sima Yi, Wei Field Marshal", in the Portal Three Kingdoms
Portal Three Kingdoms
Portal Three Kingdoms is the third Magic: The Gathering expansion of the Portal block, and the third starter level set. Like the other expansions in the Portal block, Portal: Three Kingdoms is designed for beginners to Magic. The setting is heavily based on the Chinese historical novel Romance of...
set.
Chan Mou
Chan Mou
Chan Mou is a comic artist. His first comic ever self-written and self-produced Unhuman , based on the Three Kingdoms period and released in 1996, had won him numerous awards and recognitions.His pen name Chan Mou...
's manhua
Manhua
Manhua are Chinese comics originally produced in China. Possibly due to their greater degree of artistic freedom of expression and closer international ties with Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan have been the places of publication of most manhua thus far, often including Chinese translations of...
series The Ravages of Time
The Ravages of Time
The Ravages of Time is an on-going Hong Kong manhua series created by Chan Mou. It re-tells the events in the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history, with the story largely revolving around the many exploits of a young Sima Yi.The series is known for exercising a large...
is another fictionalized series of the Three Kingdoms with Sima Yi as the central character.