Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps
Encyclopedia
Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps region was a historic process that took place between the 6th and 9th century AD, having culminated in the final quarter of the 6th century. During this period, the Eastern Alps
, comprising the area of modern Slovenia
and large parts of modern Austria
(Carinthia
, Styria
, East Tyrol
, Lower Austria
and parts of Upper Austria
) were settled by Slavic tribes. This settlement meant the beginning of the ethnogenesis
of the Slovene people.
The migration of Slavic peoples from their homeland began in roughly the late 4th to early 5th century, as Germanic peoples
started moving
into the territory of the Roman Empire
. The migrations were stimulated by the arrival of Huns
into Eastern Europe. The Germanic peoples subsequently fought for control over territories in the eastern part of the disintegrating Roman Empire
. Slavic tribes were part of various tribal alliances with the Germanic (Lombards
, Gepids) and Eurasian (Avar
, Bulgar
) peoples.
), ethnographic traces (patterns of rural settlement and land cultivation), as well as on the ascertainments of historical linguistics (including toponymy). Besides, it is fully confirmed by the relatively few available contemporary mentionings and early historical sources (such as Historia Langobardorum by Paulus Diaconus or letters from Pope Gregory I
). Another important evidence of Slavic advances is the progressive decline of ancient Christian dioceses in the respective areas.
(i.e., the West Slavic speaking branch).
From there, Slavic peoples moved southward into the territory of the former Roman province of Noricum
(modern Upper
and Lower Austria
regions). Subsequently, they progressed along the valleys of Alpine rivers towards the Karavanke range and towards the settlement of Poetovio (modern Ptuj
), where the decline of the local diocese is recorded before 577.
The second phase of Slavic settlement came from the south and took place after the retreat of Lombards into Northern Italy in 568. The Lombards contracted to cede the relinquished territory to their new allies, the Avars
, who at that time were the overlords of Slavs. Avars first appeared in Europe around 560 when they reached lower Danube
. In 567 Avars and Lombards jointly defeated the Gepids. After the Lombards moved to Italy in 568, Avars became the nominal rulers of both the Pannonian plain (which they had conquered by 582) and the adjacent Eastern Alps region. The Slavic-Avar progress towards the Eastern Alps is traceable on the basis of synodal records of the Aquileia
n metropolitan church which speak of the decline of ancient dioceses (Emona, Celeia, Poetovio, Aguntum, Teurnia, Virunum, Scarabantia) in the respective area. In 588 Slavs reached the area of the Upper Sava River
and in 591 they arrived to the Upper Drava
region where they soon fought with the Bavarians who were led by king Tassilo I
. In 592 the Bavarians won, but in 595 the Slavic-Avar army gained victory and thus consolidated the boundary between the Frankish
and Avar
territories. Between 599-600 Slavs pushed through Istria and the Karst region towards Italy.
From 600 to the 8th century Slavs settled the entire Kras
area up to the Friulan plain
, having thus formed an ethnic boundary between the Slavic and Romance territories which has largely remained into modern days. The attempt by Slavs to penetrate westward into Friuli
probably ended after they had been defeated by the Lombards
at Lauriana, in 720.
Avar domination over Slavs persisted until mid 620s. In 623 Slavs, led by Frankish merchant Samo
, rebelled against Avars. In 626 Avars were ultimately defeated at Constantinople
, after which Samo became the ruler of the first historically known Slavic polity, Samo's Tribal Union, which persisted until his death in 658. Subsequently, a smaller Slavic principality emerged around 660, known as Carantania, and was absorbed into the Frankish Empire
in 745.
province and in its cities. In late antiquity, the aboriginal population evaded Slavic settlers by moving into remote and elevated places, usually hills, where they built fortifications; such examples are Ajdna
in the Karavanke mountain ridge and Rifnik near modern Celje
. However, recent archeological research shows that even certain well-fortified cities in the lower areas managed to protect themselves from the invaders. Part of the aboriginal population escaped into Italy and to the cities along the Adriatic coast, among them Civitas Nova (modern Novigrad
). Many aborigines were enslaved by the Slavs (an old Slavic term for slaves was krščenik, meaning a Christian, as the aborigines were Christians), some, however, assimilated with Slavs and thus enriched their culture.
Slavs referred to the Romanised aborigines as Vlahi or Lahi. Certain place names in modern Slovenia, such as Laško
, Laški rovt, Lahovče, and others, bear witness to this. Also a number of river names in modern Slovenia, like Sava, Drava
, Soča
, as well as the geographic name Carniola (Slovenian Kranjska) were adopted from the Romanised aborigines.
Eastern Alps
Eastern Alps is the name given to the eastern half of the Alps, usually defined as the area east of the Splügen Pass in eastern Switzerland. North of the Splügen Pass, the Posterior Rhine forms the border, and south of the pass, the Liro river and Lake Como form the boundary line.-Geography:The...
, comprising the area of modern Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
and large parts of modern Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
(Carinthia
Carinthia (state)
Carinthia is the southernmost Austrian state or Land. Situated within the Eastern Alps it is chiefly noted for its mountains and lakes.The main language is German. Its regional dialects belong to the Southern Austro-Bavarian group...
, Styria
Styria (state)
Styria is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. In area it is the second largest of the nine Austrian federated states, covering 16,401 km². It borders Slovenia as well as the other Austrian states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Burgenland, and Carinthia. ...
, East Tyrol
East Tyrol
East Tyrol, or East Tirol , is an exclave of the Austrian state of Tyrol, sharing no border with the main North Tyrol part of the state. It corresponds with the administrative district of Lienz....
, Lower Austria
Lower Austria
Lower Austria is the northeasternmost state of the nine states in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria since 1986 is Sankt Pölten, the most recently designated capital town in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria had formerly been Vienna, even though Vienna is not officially part of Lower Austria...
and parts of Upper Austria
Upper Austria
Upper Austria is one of the nine states or Bundesländer of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders on Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as on the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, and Salzburg...
) were settled by Slavic tribes. This settlement meant the beginning of the ethnogenesis
Ethnogenesis
Ethnogenesis is the process by which a group of human beings comes to be understood or to understand themselves as ethnically distinct from the wider social landscape from which their grouping emerges...
of the Slovene people.
Historical background
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
started moving
Migration Period
The Migration Period, also called the Barbarian Invasions , was a period of intensified human migration in Europe that occurred from c. 400 to 800 CE. This period marked the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages...
into the territory of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. The migrations were stimulated by the arrival of Huns
Huns
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns,...
into Eastern Europe. The Germanic peoples subsequently fought for control over territories in the eastern part of the disintegrating Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. Slavic tribes were part of various tribal alliances with the Germanic (Lombards
Lombards
The Lombards , also referred to as Longobards, were a Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin, who from 568 to 774 ruled a Kingdom in Italy...
, Gepids) and Eurasian (Avar
Eurasian Avars
The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...
, Bulgar
Bulgars
The Bulgars were a semi-nomadic who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century.The Bulgars emerge after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century....
) peoples.
Evidence
The prevailing view on the Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps is based mostly on evidence deduced from archeological remains (many of which have been discovered only recently due to the extensive highway constructions in SloveniaSlovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
), ethnographic traces (patterns of rural settlement and land cultivation), as well as on the ascertainments of historical linguistics (including toponymy). Besides, it is fully confirmed by the relatively few available contemporary mentionings and early historical sources (such as Historia Langobardorum by Paulus Diaconus or letters from Pope Gregory I
Pope Gregory I
Pope Gregory I , better known in English as Gregory the Great, was pope from 3 September 590 until his death...
). Another important evidence of Slavic advances is the progressive decline of ancient Christian dioceses in the respective areas.
Phases of the settlement
The first phase of Slavic settlement in the Eastern Alps region is dated around the year 550 and originated in the area of modern MoraviaMoravia
Moravia is a historical region in Central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, and one of the former Czech lands, together with Bohemia and Silesia. It takes its name from the Morava River which rises in the northwest of the region...
(i.e., the West Slavic speaking branch).
From there, Slavic peoples moved southward into the territory of the former Roman province of Noricum
Noricum
Noricum, in ancient geography, was a Celtic kingdom stretching over the area of today's Austria and a part of Slovenia. It became a province of the Roman Empire...
(modern Upper
Upper Austria
Upper Austria is one of the nine states or Bundesländer of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders on Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as on the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, and Salzburg...
and Lower Austria
Lower Austria
Lower Austria is the northeasternmost state of the nine states in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria since 1986 is Sankt Pölten, the most recently designated capital town in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria had formerly been Vienna, even though Vienna is not officially part of Lower Austria...
regions). Subsequently, they progressed along the valleys of Alpine rivers towards the Karavanke range and towards the settlement of Poetovio (modern Ptuj
Ptuj
Ptuj is a city and one of 11 urban municipalities in Slovenia. Traditionally the area was part of the Lower Styria region. The municipality is now included in the Podravje statistical region...
), where the decline of the local diocese is recorded before 577.
Eurasian Avars
The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...
, who at that time were the overlords of Slavs. Avars first appeared in Europe around 560 when they reached lower Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
. In 567 Avars and Lombards jointly defeated the Gepids. After the Lombards moved to Italy in 568, Avars became the nominal rulers of both the Pannonian plain (which they had conquered by 582) and the adjacent Eastern Alps region. The Slavic-Avar progress towards the Eastern Alps is traceable on the basis of synodal records of the Aquileia
Aquileia
Aquileia is an ancient Roman city in what is now Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about 10 km from the sea, on the river Natiso , the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times...
n metropolitan church which speak of the decline of ancient dioceses (Emona, Celeia, Poetovio, Aguntum, Teurnia, Virunum, Scarabantia) in the respective area. In 588 Slavs reached the area of the Upper Sava River
Sava River
The Sava is a river in Southeast Europe, a right side tributary of the Danube river at Belgrade. Counting from Zelenci, the source of Sava Dolinka, it is long and drains of surface area. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the northern border of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and through Serbia....
and in 591 they arrived to the Upper Drava
Drava
Drava or Drave is a river in southern Central Europe, a tributary of the Danube. It sources in Toblach/Dobbiaco, Italy, and flows east through East Tirol and Carinthia in Austria, into Slovenia , and then southeast, passing through Croatia and forming most of the border between Croatia and...
region where they soon fought with the Bavarians who were led by king Tassilo I
Tassilo I of Bavaria
Tassilo I was King of Bavaria from 591 to his death. According to Paul the Deacon, he was appointed as Bavarian rex by Childebert II, Frankish king of Austrasia, in 591, ending the war with the Franks. The war began during the reign of Tassilo's predecessor, Garibald I, when Garibald concluded a...
. In 592 the Bavarians won, but in 595 the Slavic-Avar army gained victory and thus consolidated the boundary between the Frankish
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
and Avar
Eurasian Avars
The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...
territories. Between 599-600 Slavs pushed through Istria and the Karst region towards Italy.
From 600 to the 8th century Slavs settled the entire Kras
Kras
Karst ; also known as the Karst Plateau, is a limestone borderline plateau region extending in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy. It lies between the Vipava Valley, the low hills surrounding the valley, the westernmost part of the Brkini Hills, northern Istria, and the Gulf of Trieste...
area up to the Friulan plain
Bassa Friulana
The Bassa Friulana is a low-lying and level area of Friuli, specifically the very southern part of the province of Udine, in the north-eastern Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia....
, having thus formed an ethnic boundary between the Slavic and Romance territories which has largely remained into modern days. The attempt by Slavs to penetrate westward into Friuli
Friuli
Friuli is an area of northeastern Italy with its own particular cultural and historical identity. It comprises the major part of the autonomous region Friuli-Venezia Giulia, i.e. the province of Udine, Pordenone, Gorizia, excluding Trieste...
probably ended after they had been defeated by the Lombards
Lombards
The Lombards , also referred to as Longobards, were a Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin, who from 568 to 774 ruled a Kingdom in Italy...
at Lauriana, in 720.
Samo
Samo was a Frankish merchant from the "Senonian country" , probably modern Soignies, Belgium or Sens, France. He was the first ruler of the Slavs whose name is known, and established one of the earliest Slav states, a supra-tribal union usually called Samo's empire, realm, kingdom, or tribal...
, rebelled against Avars. In 626 Avars were ultimately defeated at Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, after which Samo became the ruler of the first historically known Slavic polity, Samo's Tribal Union, which persisted until his death in 658. Subsequently, a smaller Slavic principality emerged around 660, known as Carantania, and was absorbed into the Frankish Empire
Frankish Empire
Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire , Frankish Kingdom , Frankish Realm or occasionally Frankland, was the territory inhabited and ruled by the Franks from the 3rd to the 10th century...
in 745.
Slavs and the aboriginal population
After settling in the Eastern Alps region, Slavs subsequently subjugated the aboriginal Romanised population which had dwelt in the territory of the former NoricumNoricum
Noricum, in ancient geography, was a Celtic kingdom stretching over the area of today's Austria and a part of Slovenia. It became a province of the Roman Empire...
province and in its cities. In late antiquity, the aboriginal population evaded Slavic settlers by moving into remote and elevated places, usually hills, where they built fortifications; such examples are Ajdna
Ajdna
Ajdna is a peak in the Karavanke in the Žirovnica municipality in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia. Access to it is easiest from the village of Potoki in the neighbouring Jesenice municipality....
in the Karavanke mountain ridge and Rifnik near modern Celje
Celje
Celje is a typical Central European town and the third largest town in Slovenia. It is a regional center of Lower Styria and the administrative seat of the Urban Municipality of Celje . The town of Celje is located under Upper Celje Castle at the confluence of the Savinja, Ložnica, and Voglajna...
. However, recent archeological research shows that even certain well-fortified cities in the lower areas managed to protect themselves from the invaders. Part of the aboriginal population escaped into Italy and to the cities along the Adriatic coast, among them Civitas Nova (modern Novigrad
Novigrad, Istria
Novigrad is a town and a municipality in Istria, Croatia. It is also known as Novigrad Istarski to distinguish it from three other Croatian towns of the same name. Novigrad is set on a small peninsula on the western coast of Istria, two kilometres north of the mouth of the river Mirna...
). Many aborigines were enslaved by the Slavs (an old Slavic term for slaves was krščenik, meaning a Christian, as the aborigines were Christians), some, however, assimilated with Slavs and thus enriched their culture.
Slavs referred to the Romanised aborigines as Vlahi or Lahi. Certain place names in modern Slovenia, such as Laško
Laško
Laško is a spa town and municipality in eastern Slovenia. Traditionally the area was part of the Lower Styria region. The municipality is now included in the Savinja statistical region. The town is located at the foothills of the Hum hill on the Savinja River. It is first mentioned in written...
, Laški rovt, Lahovče, and others, bear witness to this. Also a number of river names in modern Slovenia, like Sava, Drava
Drava
Drava or Drave is a river in southern Central Europe, a tributary of the Danube. It sources in Toblach/Dobbiaco, Italy, and flows east through East Tirol and Carinthia in Austria, into Slovenia , and then southeast, passing through Croatia and forming most of the border between Croatia and...
, Soča
Soca
The Soča or Isonzo is a 140 km long river that flows through western Slovenia and northeastern Italy. An Alpine river in character, its source lies in the Trenta Valley in the Julian Alps in Slovenia, at an elevation of around 1,100 metres...
, as well as the geographic name Carniola (Slovenian Kranjska) were adopted from the Romanised aborigines.
Further literature
- Rajko Bratož, "Gli inizi dell'etnogenesi slovena : fatti, tesi e ipotesi relativi al periodo di transizione dall'eta antica al medioevo nel territorio situato tra l'Adriatico e il Danubio". In publication: La cristianizzazione degli Slavi nell'arco alpino orientale, ur. Andrea Tilatti. Nuovi studi storici, 69. Roma, Gorizia, 2005, str. 145-188.
- Bogo GrafenauerBogo GrafenauerBogo Grafenauer was a Slovenian historian, who mostly wrote about medieval history in the Slovene Lands. Together with Milko Kos, Fran Zwitter, and Vasilij Melik, he was one of the founders of the so-called Ljubljana school of historiography.- Early life :He was born in Ljubljana in a well...
, "Naselitev Slovanov v Vzhodnih Alpah in vprašanje kontinuitete" [Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps and the issue of continuity], Arheološki vestnik 21-22 (1970–71), p. 17-32; - Mitja Guštin, ed., "Zgodnji Slovani: zgodnjesrednjeveška lončenina na obrobju vzhodnih Alp = Die frühen Slawen: frühmittelalterliche Keramik am Rand der Ostalpen". Ljubljana, 2002.
- Hans-Dietrich Kahl, "Der Staat der Karantanen: Fakten, Thesen und Fragen zu einer frühen slawischen Machtbildung im Ostalpenraum". Ljubljana, 2002.
- Peter ŠtihPeter ŠtihPeter Štih is a Slovenian historian, specialising in medieval history.Štih was born in Ljubljana, but spent most of his childhood years in the town of Most na Soči in the Goriška region of western Slovenia. He attended grammar school in Tolmin and studied history at the University of Ljubljana,...
, "Ob naselitvi Slovanov vse pobito?" [Did Slavic settlement result in the killing of the entire population?]. In publication: Množične smrti na Slovenskem: 29. zborovanje slovenskih zgodovinarjev [Massive killings in Slovenia: 29th conference of Slovenian historians], Ljubljana, 1999, p. 79-93. - Peter Štih, Janez Peršič, "Problem langobardske vzhodne meje" [The issue of the Lombard eastern frontier], Zgodovinski časopis = Historical Review 35 (1981), p. 333-341.
- Aleš Žužek, "Naselitev Slovanov v vzhodnoalpski prostor" [Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps area], Zgodovinski časopis = Historical Review 61 (2007), p. 261-287.
See also
- History of SloveniaHistory of SloveniaThe history of Slovenia chronicles the period of the Slovene territory from the 5th Century BC to the present times. In the Early Bronze Age, Proto-Illyrian tribes settled an area stretching from present-day Albania to the city of Trieste. The Holy Roman Empire controlled the land for nearly 1,000...
- Carantania
- Karantanians
- History of the AlpsHistory of the AlpsThe Alpine region has been populated since ancient times and, due to its central location, its history has always been closely entwined with that of Europe. Currently the Alps sprawl across eight countries...
- Paganism in the Eastern AlpsPaganism in the Eastern AlpsThe central and eastern Alps of Europe are rich in folklore traditions dating back to pre-Christian times, with surviving elements amalgamated from Germanic, Gaulish , Slavic and Raetian culture....
- Venetic theoryVenetic theoryThe Venetic theory is a widely diffused autochthonist theory of the origin of Slovenes which denies the Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps in the 6th century, claiming that proto-Slovenes have inhabited the region since ancient times. Although it has been rejected by scholars, it has been an...