Small talk (phatic communication)
Encyclopedia
Small talk is an informal type of discourse
that does not cover any functional topics of conversation or any transactions that need to be addressed.
Small talk is conversation
for its own sake, or "…comments on what is perfectly obvious." The phenomenon of small talk was initially studied in 1923 by Bronisław Malinowski, who coined the term "phatic
communication" to describe it.
The ability to conduct small talk is a social skill, hence small talk is some type of social communication
. Early publications assume networked work positions as suitable for social communication.
Newer habits make use of social media
as an instrument for small talk.
ritual and a strategy for managing interpersonal distance. It serves many functions in helping to define the relationships between friends, work colleagues, and new acquaintances. In particular, it helps new acquaintances to explore and categorize each other's social position
. Small talk is closely related to the need for people to maintain positive face
— to feel approved-of by those who are listening to them. It lubricates social interactions in a very flexible way, although the desired function is often dependent on the point in the conversation at which the small talk occurs:
In some conversations there is no specific functional or informative element at all. The following example of small talk is between two colleagues who pass each other in a hallway:
In this example, the elements of phatic talk at the beginning and end of the conversation have merged together. The entire short conversation is a space-filler. This type of discourse is often called chatter.
The need to use small talk depends upon the nature of the relationship between the people having the conversation. Couples in an intimate relationship
can signal their level of closeness by a lack of small talk. They can comfortably accept silence in circumstances that would be uncomfortable for two people who were only casual friends. Some couples use different non-human, mostly pet-related sounds (like soft barking or meowing) in greeting and some other situations instead of small talk.
In workplace situations, small talk tends to occur mostly between workers on the same level. However, it can be used by managers
as a way of developing the working relationships with the staff who report to them. A boss who asks their employees to work overtime
may try to motivate
them by using small talk to temporarily decrease their difference in status
. The balance between functional conversation and small talk in the workplace depends on the context, and is also influenced by the relative power
of the two speakers. It is usually the superior who defines the conversation, because they have the power to close the small talk and "get down to business."
between the two people, and the circumstances of the conversation. In either case, someone initiating small talk will tend to choose a topic for which they can assume a shared background knowledge, to prevent the conversation being too one-sided.
Topics can be summarised as being either direct or indirect. Direct topics include personal observations such as health
or looks. Indirect topics refer to a situational context such as the latest news, or the conditions of the communicative situation. Some topics are considered to be "safe" in most circumstances:
The level of detail offered should not overstep the bounds of interpersonal space. When asked, "How are you?" by an acquaintance they do not know well, a person is likely to choose a simple, generalised reply such as, "Fine, thank you." In this circumstance it would probably not be appropriate for them to reply with a list of symptoms of any medical conditions they were suffering from. To do so would assume a greater degree of familiarity between the two people than is actually the case, and this may create an uncomfortable situation.
The first move is usually phrased so that it is easy for the other person to agree. It may be either a question, or a statement of opinion with a tag question
. For example, an opening line such as "Lovely weather, isn't it?" is a clear invitation for agreement.
The second move is the other person's response. In functional conversations that address a particular topic, Grice's
Maxim of Quantity suggests that responses should contain no more information than was explicitly asked for. Schneider claims that one of the principles of small talk contradicts the Maxim of Quantity. He suggests that politeness
in small talk is maximised by responding with a more substantial answer. Going back to the example of "Lovely weather, isn't it?", to respond by just saying "Yes" is less polite than saying, "Yes, very mild for the time of year."
Schneider describes that subsequent moves may involve an acknowledgement such as "I see", a positive evaluation such as "That's nice", or what's called "idling behaviour", such as "Mmm", or "Really?".
By contrast, men's small talk tends to be more competitive. It may feature verbal sparring matches
, playful insults, and putdowns. However, in a way these are also both creators and signals of solidarity; the men are signalling that they are comfortable enough with each other's company to be able to say these things without their being taken as insults.
s. Weather is a common topic in regions where the climate has great variation and can be unpredictable. Questions about the family are usual in some Asian and Arab countries. In cultures that are highly status-oriented such as China and Japan, small talk between new acquaintances may feature numerous questions that enable social categorization of each other. In many European cultures it is common to discuss the weather, politics or the economy, although in some countries personal finance issues such as salary are considered taboo.
Discourse
Discourse generally refers to "written or spoken communication". The following are three more specific definitions:...
that does not cover any functional topics of conversation or any transactions that need to be addressed.
Small talk is conversation
Conversation
Conversation is a form of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more people who are following rules of etiquette.Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization of human interaction, with a more specific focus on conversational...
for its own sake, or "…comments on what is perfectly obvious." The phenomenon of small talk was initially studied in 1923 by Bronisław Malinowski, who coined the term "phatic
Phatic
In linguistics, a phatic expression is one whose only function is to perform a social task, as opposed to conveying information.-History:The term was coined by anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski in the early 1900s from Greek phanein: to show oneself, appear.-Understanding:The utterance of a...
communication" to describe it.
The ability to conduct small talk is a social skill, hence small talk is some type of social communication
Social communication
The term social communication refers to using the so-called social media. However there is no standardised definition yet recognised. Generally communication requires a social nexus of at least two entities in a technical or just social relation...
. Early publications assume networked work positions as suitable for social communication.
Newer habits make use of social media
Social media
The term Social Media refers to the use of web-based and mobile technologies to turn communication into an interactive dialogue. Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0,...
as an instrument for small talk.
Purpose
In spite of seeming to have little useful purpose, small talk is a bondingHuman bonding
Human bonding is the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups such as sporting teams and whenever people spend time together...
ritual and a strategy for managing interpersonal distance. It serves many functions in helping to define the relationships between friends, work colleagues, and new acquaintances. In particular, it helps new acquaintances to explore and categorize each other's social position
Social position
Social position is the position of an individual in a given society and culture. A given position may belong to many individuals. Social position influences social status...
. Small talk is closely related to the need for people to maintain positive face
Face (self image)
Face, idiomatically meaning dignity/prestige, is a fundamental concept in the fields of sociology, sociolinguistics, semantics, politeness theory, psychology, political science, communication, and Face Negotiation Theory.-Definitions:...
— to feel approved-of by those who are listening to them. It lubricates social interactions in a very flexible way, although the desired function is often dependent on the point in the conversation at which the small talk occurs:
- 1. At the beginning of a conversationConversation openerA conversation opener is an introduction used to begin a conversation. They are frequently the subject of guides and seminars on how to make friends and/or meet people. Different situations may call for different openers A conversation opener is an introduction used to begin a conversation. They...
- When the talkers do not know each other, it allows them to show that they have friendly intentions and desire some sort of positive interaction. In a business meeting, it enables people to establish each other's reputation and level of expertise. Where there is already a relationship between the two talkers, their small talk serves as a gentle introduction before engaging in more functional topics of conversation. It allows them to signal their own moodMood (psychology)A mood is a relatively long lasting emotional state. Moods differ from emotions in that they are less specific, less intense, and less likely to be triggered by a particular stimulus or event....
and to sense the mood of the other person.
- 2. At the end of a conversation
- Suddenly ending an exchange may risk appearing to rejectSocial rejectionSocial rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. The topic includes both interpersonal rejection and romantic rejection. A person can be rejected on an individual basis or by an entire group of people...
the other person. Small talk can be used to mitigate that rejection, affirm the relationship between the two people, and soften the parting.
- 3. As a space filler to avoid silence
- In many cultures, silenceSilenceSilence is the relative or total lack of audible sound. By analogy, the word silence may also refer to any absence of communication, even in media other than speech....
s between two people are usually considered uncomfortable. Tension can be reduced by starting phatic talk until a more substantial subject arises. Generally, humans find prolonged silence uncomfortable, and sometimes unbearable. This can be due to human evolutionary history as a social species, as in many other social animals silenceSilenceSilence is the relative or total lack of audible sound. By analogy, the word silence may also refer to any absence of communication, even in media other than speech....
is a communicative sign of potential danger
In some conversations there is no specific functional or informative element at all. The following example of small talk is between two colleagues who pass each other in a hallway:
- William : Morning, Paul.
- Paul : Oh, morning, William, how are you?
- William : Fine, thanks. Have a good weekend?
- Paul : Yes, thanks. Catch you later.
- William : OK, see you.
In this example, the elements of phatic talk at the beginning and end of the conversation have merged together. The entire short conversation is a space-filler. This type of discourse is often called chatter.
The need to use small talk depends upon the nature of the relationship between the people having the conversation. Couples in an intimate relationship
Intimate relationship
An intimate relationship is a particularly close interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by romantic or passionate love and attachment, or sexual activity. The term is also sometimes used euphemistically for a sexual...
can signal their level of closeness by a lack of small talk. They can comfortably accept silence in circumstances that would be uncomfortable for two people who were only casual friends. Some couples use different non-human, mostly pet-related sounds (like soft barking or meowing) in greeting and some other situations instead of small talk.
In workplace situations, small talk tends to occur mostly between workers on the same level. However, it can be used by managers
Management
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...
as a way of developing the working relationships with the staff who report to them. A boss who asks their employees to work overtime
Overtime
Overtime is the amount of time someone works beyond normal working hours. Normal hours may be determined in several ways:*by custom ,*by practices of a given trade or profession,*by legislation,...
may try to motivate
Motivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
them by using small talk to temporarily decrease their difference in status
Social status
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in society . It may also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter, playmate, pupil, etc....
. The balance between functional conversation and small talk in the workplace depends on the context, and is also influenced by the relative power
Power (communication)
Power can be described as the capacity of an individual or a group to exert their will over another or others or influence the goals of a relationship. Power is not a characteristic of any one individual, rather, it is defined in terms of relationships and transactions between people...
of the two speakers. It is usually the superior who defines the conversation, because they have the power to close the small talk and "get down to business."
Topics
The topics of small talk conversations are generally less important than their social function. The selected topic usually depends on any pre-existing relationshipInterpersonal relationship
An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the...
between the two people, and the circumstances of the conversation. In either case, someone initiating small talk will tend to choose a topic for which they can assume a shared background knowledge, to prevent the conversation being too one-sided.
Topics can be summarised as being either direct or indirect. Direct topics include personal observations such as health
Health
Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain...
or looks. Indirect topics refer to a situational context such as the latest news, or the conditions of the communicative situation. Some topics are considered to be "safe" in most circumstances:
- The weather
- Recent shared experiences, for example "Good weather last night, wasn't it?"
- Television and films
- Sports
The level of detail offered should not overstep the bounds of interpersonal space. When asked, "How are you?" by an acquaintance they do not know well, a person is likely to choose a simple, generalised reply such as, "Fine, thank you." In this circumstance it would probably not be appropriate for them to reply with a list of symptoms of any medical conditions they were suffering from. To do so would assume a greater degree of familiarity between the two people than is actually the case, and this may create an uncomfortable situation.
Conversational patterns
A study of small talk in situations which involve the chance meeting of strangers has been carried out by Klaus Schneider. He theorises that such a conversation consists of a number of fairly predictable segments, or "moves".The first move is usually phrased so that it is easy for the other person to agree. It may be either a question, or a statement of opinion with a tag question
Tag question
A question tag or tag question is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment . For example, in the sentence "You're John, aren't you?", the statement "You're John" is turned into a question by the tag...
. For example, an opening line such as "Lovely weather, isn't it?" is a clear invitation for agreement.
The second move is the other person's response. In functional conversations that address a particular topic, Grice's
Paul Grice
Herbert Paul Grice , usually publishing under the name H. P. Grice, H...
Maxim of Quantity suggests that responses should contain no more information than was explicitly asked for. Schneider claims that one of the principles of small talk contradicts the Maxim of Quantity. He suggests that politeness
Politeness
Politeness is best expressed as the practical application of good manners or etiquette. It is a culturally-defined phenomenon, and therefore what is considered polite in one culture can sometimes be quite rude or simply eccentric in another cultural context....
in small talk is maximised by responding with a more substantial answer. Going back to the example of "Lovely weather, isn't it?", to respond by just saying "Yes" is less polite than saying, "Yes, very mild for the time of year."
Schneider describes that subsequent moves may involve an acknowledgement such as "I see", a positive evaluation such as "That's nice", or what's called "idling behaviour", such as "Mmm", or "Really?".
Gender differences
Speech patterns between women tend to be more collaborative than those of men, and tend to support each other's involvement in the conversation. Topics for small talk are more likely to include compliments about some aspect of personal appearance. For example, "That dress really suits you." Small talk between women who are friends may also involve a greater degree of self disclosure. Topics may cover more personal aspects of their life, their troubles, and their secrets. This self-disclosure both generates a closer relationship between them, and also is a signal of that closeness.By contrast, men's small talk tends to be more competitive. It may feature verbal sparring matches
Stichomythia
Stichomythia is a technique in verse drama in which single alternating lines, or half-lines, are given to alternating characters. It typically features repetition and antithesis. The term originated in the theatre of Ancient Greece, though many dramatists since have used the technique...
, playful insults, and putdowns. However, in a way these are also both creators and signals of solidarity; the men are signalling that they are comfortable enough with each other's company to be able to say these things without their being taken as insults.
Cultural differences
Small talk rules and topics can differ widely between cultureCulture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
s. Weather is a common topic in regions where the climate has great variation and can be unpredictable. Questions about the family are usual in some Asian and Arab countries. In cultures that are highly status-oriented such as China and Japan, small talk between new acquaintances may feature numerous questions that enable social categorization of each other. In many European cultures it is common to discuss the weather, politics or the economy, although in some countries personal finance issues such as salary are considered taboo.
See also
- Debra FineDebra FineDebra Fine is an author and keynote speaker who began her career as an engineer, an occupation that allowed her to maintain her natural shyness and avoid situations that required social interactions.-Bibliography:...
- SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society...
- Cheap talkCheap talkIn game theory, cheap talk is communication between players which does not directly affect the payoffs of the game. This is in contrast to signaling in which sending certain messages may be costly for the sender depending on the state of the world...
(game theory) - SilenceSilenceSilence is the relative or total lack of audible sound. By analogy, the word silence may also refer to any absence of communication, even in media other than speech....
- Contact callsContact callsSeemingly haphazard sounds made by many social animals are known as contact calls. Contact calls are very different from many other types of calls , as contact calls are not a specific signal, designed to communicate some specific information...