Social War
Encyclopedia
- For the Athenian conflict with its allies between 357 and 355 BC see Social War (357–355 BC).
The Allied War ("Social" from socii ("allies"); also called the Italian War, the War of the Allies or the Marsic War) was a war waged from 91 to 88 BC between the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
and several of the other cities in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, which prior to the war had been Roman allies for centuries.
Origins
The Early Italian campaigns (458–396 BC) saw the Roman conquest of Italy resulting in a collection of alliances between RomeRome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
and the cities and communities of Italy, on more or less favorable terms depending on whether a given city had voluntarily allied with Rome or been defeated in war. These cities were theoretically independent, but in practice Rome had the right to demand from them tribute money and a certain number of soldiers: by the 2nd century BC, between one half and two-thirds of the soldiers in Roman armies were drawn from the Italian allies. The Roman government also had virtual control over the allies' foreign policy including their interaction with one another.
In exchange for these exactions, the allies had traditionally received a portion of the booty and lands taken in the course of Rome's conquest of the Mediterranean world. But when Roman politicians redirected these profits to enrich Rome alone in the 2nd century BC, the allies protested. When Rome ignored their demands, the cities’ anger continued to grow to such an extent that most of them eventually declared war on their former ally.
The Romans' policy of land distribution had led to great inequality of land ownership and wealth. This led to the "Italian race… declining little by little into pauperism and paucity of numbers without any hope of remedy."
The Social War was in part caused by the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus
Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune)
The younger Marcus Livius Drusus, son of Marcus Livius Drusus, was tribune of the plebeians in 91 BC. In the manner of Gaius Gracchus, he set out with comprehensive plans, but his aim was to strengthen senatorial rule...
. His reforms would have granted the Roman allies Roman citizenship
Roman citizenship
Citizenship in ancient Rome was a privileged political and legal status afforded to certain free-born individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance....
, giving them a greater say in the external policy of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
. Most local affairs came under local governance and were not as important to the Romans as, for example, when the alliance would go to war or how they would divide the plunder. When Drusus was assassinated most of his reforms addressing these grievances were declared invalid. This angered the Roman allies greatly, and most of them allied with one another against Rome.
The War
The Social War began in 91 BC when the Italian allies revolted. Note that none of the LatinLatins (Italic tribe)
The Latins were a people of ancient Italy who included the inhabitants of the early City of Rome. From ca. 1000 BC, the Latins inhabited the small part of the peninsula known to the Romans as Old Latium , that is, the region between the river Tiber and the promontory of Monte Circeo The Latins (or...
allies revolted, remaining loyal to Rome, with the one exception of Venusia. The rebellious allies showed their intentions of not just separating from Rome, but also forming an independent nation, called Italia, and forming a capital at Corfinium
Corfinium
Corfinium was a city in Ancient Italy, on the eastern side of the Apennines, due east of Rome. It is now near the modern Corfinio, in the province of L'Aquila .-History:...
(in modern-day Abruzzo
Abruzzo
Abruzzo is a region in Italy, its western border lying less than due east of Rome. Abruzzo borders the region of Marche to the north, Lazio to the west and south-west, Molise to the south-east, and the Adriatic Sea to the east...
) that was renamed Italica. To pay for the troops, they created their own coinage that was used as propaganda against Rome. These coins depict eight warriors taking an oath, probably representing the Marsi, Picentines, Paeligni, Marrucini, Vestini, Frentani, Samnites and Hirpini.
Their soldiers were battle-hardened, most of them having served in the Roman armies. The 12 allies of Italia were originally able to field 100,000 men. The Italians divided this force according to their positions within Italy.
- Quintus Poppaedius Silo had overall command the "Marsic Group", as consul.
- Gaius Papius MutilusGaius Papius MutilusGaius Papius Mutilus was a Samnite noble who is best known for being the leader of the southern rebels who fought against the army of Rome in the Social War of 91-87 BC .- The Southern Forces Under Gaius Papius :...
had overall command the "Samnite Group", as consul. - Titus Lafrenius commanded the MarsiMarsiMarsi is the Latin exonym for a people of ancient Italy, whose chief centre was Marruvium, on the eastern shore of Lake Fucinus, drained for agricultural land in the late 19th century. The area in which they lived is now called Marsica. During the Roman Republic the people of the region spoke a...
to 90 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Fraucus. - Titus Vettius Scato commanded the PaeligniPaeligniThe Paeligni or Peligni were an Italic people who lived in the Valle Peligna, in what is now Abruzzo, central Italy.-History:The Paeligni are first mentioned as a member of a confederacy which included the Marsi, Marrucini and Vestini, with which the Romans came into conflict in the Second Samnite...
to 88 BC, when he committed suicide. - Gaius Pontidius probably commanded the VestiniVestiniVestini is the Roman exonym for an ancient Italic tribe that occupied the area of the modern Abruzzo included between the Gran Sasso and the northern bank of the Aterno river...
, probably at least until 89 BC. - Herius AsiniusHerius AsiniusHerius Asinius, of Teate, was the commander of the Marrucini in the Marsic War. He fell in battle against Gaius Marius in 90 BC. He may have been the grandfather of Gaius Asinius Pollio, consul in 40 BC, and the ancestor of many, if not all of the members of the gens Asinia who later made their...
commanded the MarruciniMarruciniThe Marrucini were an ancient tribe which occupied a small strip of territory around the ancient Teate , on the east coast of Abruzzo, Italy, limited by the Aterno and Foro Rivers...
until 89 BC, when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by ObsidiusObsidiusObsidius was the commander of a Frentanian troop of horse, serving under the consul Laevinus in the campaign against Pyrrhus in 280 BC. He distinguished himself in the battle fought at the river Liris in that year by the daring attempt which he made upon the king's life...
who was also killed in action. - Gaius Vidacilius commanded the PicentesPicentesThe Picentes or Picentini are Latin exonyms for the people who lived in Picenum in the northern Adriatic coastal plain of ancient Italy. The endonym, if any, and its language are not known for certain....
until 89 BC, when he committed suicide. - Publius Praesentius probably commanded the FrentaniFrentaniThe Frentani were an ancient people of central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast of the peninsula from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the frontiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini. They were bounded on the west by the Samnites, with whom they were closely connected, and from...
, probably throughout the war. - Numerius Lucilius probably commanded the HirpiniHirpiniThe Hirpini , were an ancient Samnite people of central Italy. While general regarded as having been Samnites, sometimes they are treated as a distinct and independent nation...
until 89 BC, when he seems to have been succeeded by Minatus Iegius (or Minius Iegius). - Lucius Cluentius commanded the PompeianiPompeiiThe city of Pompeii is a partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Along with Herculaneum, Pompeii was destroyed and completely buried during a long catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius spanning...
in 89 BC when he was killed in action. - Titus Herennius probably commanded the Venusini throughout the war.
- Trebatius may have commanded the Iapygii throughout the war.
- Marcus Lamponius commanded the LucaniLucaniLučani is a town and municipality located in the Dragačevo region within the Moravica District of Serbia . The population of the town is 3,425, while population of the municipality was 20,855....
throughout the war. - Marius Egnatius commanded the Samnites until 88 BC when he was killed in action. He was succeeded by Pontius Telesinus who was also killed in action that year.
It was necessary for Rome to survive the first onslaught as this would discourage further defections and also they would be able to call on help from their provinces as well as from client kingdoms. One of the two separate theatres of war was assigned to each of the consuls of 90 BC. In the north, the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus was advised by Gaius Marius
Gaius Marius
Gaius Marius was a Roman general and statesman. He was elected consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens, eliminating the manipular military formations, and reorganizing the...
and Pompeius Strabo
Pompeius Strabo
Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo , whose cognomen means "cross eyed", is often referred to in English as Pompey Strabo to distinguish him from Strabo, the geographer. Strabo lived in the Roman Republic. Strabo was born and raised into a noble family in Picenum a rural district in Northern Italy, off the...
; in the south the consul Lucius Julius Caesar
Lucius Julius Caesar III
Lucius Julius Caesar was a son of Lucius Julius Caesar , and elder brother to Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus. Lucius was involved in the downfall of tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC and became praetor in 94 BC without being a quaestor and aedile first...
had Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix , known commonly as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He had the rare distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as that of dictator...
and Titus Didius
Titus Didius
Titus Didius was a general and politician of the Roman Republic. He is credited with the restoration of the Villa Publica, and is notorious for his proconsulship in Hispania Citerior ....
.
Events in 90 BC:
- Roman consul Strabo successfully besieged AsculumAsculumAsculum, also known as Ausculum, was the ancient name of two Italian cities.The first is Ascoli Piceno, the Ausculum in ancient Picenum . It is situated in the valley of the Truentus river on the via Salaria. It was originally a Sabine city . Following its defeat by the Romans in 268 BC...
- Rutilius was defeated and killed in Tolenus Valley
- Quintus Servilius CaepioQuintus Servilius Caepio the YoungerQuintus Servilius Caepio the Younger was a Roman soldier and statesman. He was elected praetor in 91 BC, and fought for Rome during the Marsic Wars of the Italian Rebellion against Rome. His father was Quintus Servilius Caepio the Elder....
was defeated and killed by Poppaedius - Marius was able to retrieve these losses and was left in sole command
- Besieged Aesernia — a key fortress which covered the communication between the north and south areas — forced it to surrender
- Papius Mutilus burst into southern CampaniaCampaniaCampania is a region in southern Italy. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,590 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
and won over many towns and held them until defeated by Caesar - Other Italian commanders lead successful raids into ApuliaApuliaApulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises , and...
and LucaniaLucaniaLucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. To the north it adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and to the south it was separated by a narrow isthmus from the district of Bruttium...
Despite these losses, the Romans managed to stave off total defeat and hang on. In 89 BC, both consuls went to the northern front whilst Sulla took sole command of the southern front.
Events in 89 BC:
- Lucius Porcius CatoLucius Porcius CatoLucius Porcius Cato, son of Marcus Porcius Cato Salonianus, was a consul of the Roman Republic in 89 BC.As consul, Porcius Cato led the Roman army at the Battle of Fucine Lake in 89 BC against a rebel force during the Social War, but was defeated and killed while fighting a Marsic camp in winter.-...
(one of the two consuls) defeated and killed - Strabo (other consul) left in sole command – decisive engagement defeated Italian Army of 60,000 men – after success forces Asculum to surrender
- Sulla moved to the offensive — he defeated a Samnite army
- Recovered some of the major cities in Campania
By 88 BC, the war was largely over except for the Samnites (the old rivals of Rome) who still held out. It is likely that the war would have continued a lot longer had Rome not made concessions to their allies.
Roman concessions to the Allies
L. Julius Caesar proposed the Lex JuliaLex Julia
Lex Julia are ancient Roman laws, introduced by any member of the Julian family....
during his consulship which he carried before his office ended. The law offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted.
However, the law offered the option of citizenship to whole communities and not to individuals. This meant that each individual community had to pass the law, most likely by a vote in assembly, before it could take effect. It was also possible under the Lex Julia for citizenship to be granted as a reward for distinguished military service in the field.
It is assumed that the Lex Julia was closely followed by a supplementary statute, the Lex Plautia Papiria
Lex Plautia Papiria
The Lex Plautia Papiria was a Roman plebiscite enacted amidst the Social War in 89 BCE. Sponsored by the Tribunes of the Plebs, M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo, the law expanded civitas, or citizenship...
, which stated that a registered male of an allied state could obtain Roman citizenship by presenting himself to a Roman praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
within 60 days of the passing of the law. This statute enabled inhabitants of towns disqualified by the Lex Julia to apply for citizenship if they desired.
Roman citizenship and the right to vote was limited, as always in the ancient world, by the requirement of physical appearance on voting day. After 8 BC, candidates regularly paid the expenses (at least partially) for their supporters to travel to Rome in order to vote.