Soma (biology)
Encyclopedia
The soma or perikaryon (pl. perikarya), or cyton, is the bulbous end of a neuron
, containing the cell nucleus
. The word "soma" comes from the Greek
σῶμα, meaning "body"; the soma of a neuron is often called the "cell
body". There are many different specialized types of neurons, and their sizes vary from as small as about 30 micrometre
s to over 10 millimetre for some of the largest neurons of invertebrate
s.
The soma contains many organelles, including granules called Nissl granules
, which are composed largely of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free polyribosomes. The cell nucleus is a key feature of the soma. The nucleus is the source of most of the RNA
that is produced in neurons. In general, most protein
s are produced from mRNAs
that do not travel far from the cell nucleus. This creates a challenge for supplying new proteins to axon
endings that can be a meter or more away from the soma. Axons contain microtubule
-associated motor proteins that transport protein-containing vesicles
between the soma and the synapse
s at the axon terminals. Such transport of molecules towards and away from the soma maintains critical cell functions.
The axon hillock
is a specialized domain of the neuronal cell body from which the axon originates. A high amount of protein synthesis occurs in this region, as it is largely devoid of Nissl granules and polyribosomes. Within the axon hillock, materials are sorted as either items that will enter the axon (like the components of the cytoskeletal architecture of the axon, mitochondria, etc.) or will remain in the soma. In addition, the axon hillock also has a specialized plasma membrane that contains large numbers of voltage-gated ion channels, since this is most often the site of action potential initiation.
The survival of some sensory neuron
s depends on axon endings making contact with sources of survival factors that prevent apoptosis
. The survival factors are neurotrophic factors, including molecules such as nerve growth factor
(NGF). NGF interacts with receptors at axon terminals, and this produces a signal that must be transported up the length of the axon to the nucleus. A current theory of how such survival signals are sent from axon endings to the soma includes the idea that NGF receptors are endocytosed
from the surface of axon tips and that such endocytotic vesicles are transported up the axon.
Neuron
A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
, containing the cell nucleus
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
. The word "soma" comes from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
σῶμα, meaning "body"; the soma of a neuron is often called the "cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
body". There are many different specialized types of neurons, and their sizes vary from as small as about 30 micrometre
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
s to over 10 millimetre for some of the largest neurons of invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
s.
The soma contains many organelles, including granules called Nissl granules
Nissl body
A Nissl body is a large granular body found in neurons. These granules are rough endoplasmic reticulum and are the site of protein synthesis...
, which are composed largely of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free polyribosomes. The cell nucleus is a key feature of the soma. The nucleus is the source of most of the RNA
RNA
Ribonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
that is produced in neurons. In general, most protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s are produced from mRNAs
Messenger RNA
Messenger RNA is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein...
that do not travel far from the cell nucleus. This creates a challenge for supplying new proteins to axon
Axon
An axon is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body or soma....
endings that can be a meter or more away from the soma. Axons contain microtubule
Microtubule
Microtubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular...
-associated motor proteins that transport protein-containing vesicles
Vesicle (biology)
A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
between the soma and the synapse
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell...
s at the axon terminals. Such transport of molecules towards and away from the soma maintains critical cell functions.
The axon hillock
Axon hillock
The axon hillock is a specialized part of the cell body of a neuron that connects to the axon. As a result, the axon hillock is the last site in the soma where membrane potentials propagated from synaptic inputs are summated before being transmitted to the axon. For many years it was believed...
is a specialized domain of the neuronal cell body from which the axon originates. A high amount of protein synthesis occurs in this region, as it is largely devoid of Nissl granules and polyribosomes. Within the axon hillock, materials are sorted as either items that will enter the axon (like the components of the cytoskeletal architecture of the axon, mitochondria, etc.) or will remain in the soma. In addition, the axon hillock also has a specialized plasma membrane that contains large numbers of voltage-gated ion channels, since this is most often the site of action potential initiation.
The survival of some sensory neuron
Sensory neuron
Sensory neurons are typically classified as the neurons responsible for converting external stimuli from the environment into internal stimuli. They are activated by sensory input , and send projections into the central nervous system that convey sensory information to the brain or spinal cord...
s depends on axon endings making contact with sources of survival factors that prevent apoptosis
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
. The survival factors are neurotrophic factors, including molecules such as nerve growth factor
Nerve growth factor
Nerve growth factor is a small secreted protein that is important for the growth, maintenance, and survival of certain target neurons . It also functions as a signaling molecule. It is perhaps the prototypical growth factor, in that it is one of the first to be described...
(NGF). NGF interacts with receptors at axon terminals, and this produces a signal that must be transported up the length of the axon to the nucleus. A current theory of how such survival signals are sent from axon endings to the soma includes the idea that NGF receptors are endocytosed
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process by which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane...
from the surface of axon tips and that such endocytotic vesicles are transported up the axon.