Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War
Encyclopedia
The Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War was the central area
of operations in North America
in the second half of the American Revolutionary War
. During the first three years of the conflict, the primary military encounters had been in the north, focused on campaigns around the cities of Boston
, New York
, and Philadelphia
. After the failure of the Saratoga campaign
, the British
largely abandoned operations in the Middle Colonies
and pursued a strategy of pacification
in the Southern Colonies
.
Before 1778, the southern colonies were largely dominated by Patriot
-controlled governments and militias, although there was also a Continental Army
presence that played a role in the defense of Charleston
in 1776, suppression of Loyalist
militia, and attempts to drive the British from East Florida
, which remained strongly Loyalist.
The British "southern strategy" began in late 1778 with the capture
of Savannah, Georgia
, which was followed in 1780 by operations in South Carolina
that included the defeat of two Continental Armies at Charleston
and Camden
. General Nathanael Greene
, who took over as Continental Army commander after Camden, engaged in a strategy of avoidance and attrition against the British. The two forces fought a string of battles, most of which were tactical victories for the British. In almost all cases, however, the "victories" strategically weakened the British army by the high cost in casualties, while leaving the Continental Army intact to continue fighting. This was best exemplified by the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. Several American victories, such as the Battle of Cowpens
and the Battle of King's Mountain also served to weaken the overall British military strength. The culminating engagement, the Siege of Yorktown
, ended with the British army's surrender, and essentially marked the end of British power in the Colonies.
on April 20, 1775, Lord Dunmore
, the Royal Governor of Virginia, removed gunpowder stored in Williamsburg
to a British warship in the James River
. Dunmore saw rising unrest in the colony and was trying to deprive Virginia militia
of supplies needed for insurrection. Patriot militia led by Patrick Henry
forced Dunmore to pay for the gunpowder. Dunmore continued to hunt for caches of military equipment and supplies in the following months, acts that were sometimes anticipated by Patriot militia, who would move supplies before his arrival.
Dunmore issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. After an incident at Kemp's Landing
in November where Dunmore's troops killed and captured Patriot militiamen, Patriot forces defeated Loyalist troops (which included runaway slaves Dunmore formed into his Ethiopian Regiment
) at the Battle of Great Bridge
on December 9. Dunmore and his troops retreated to British ships anchored off Norfolk
; Dunmore bombarded and burned the town
on January 1, 1776. He was driven from an island in Chesapeake Bay
that summer, and never returned to Virginia. Most of the slaves who enlisted with Dunmore died in combat or from disease.
Georgia's royal governor, James Wright
, nominally remained in power until January 1776, when the unexpected arrival of British ships near Savannah
prompted the local Committee of Safety
to order his arrest. Georgia Patriots and Loyalists alike believed the fleet had arrived to provide military support to the governor; it had in fact been sent from the besieged
British forces in Boston, Massachusetts to acquire rice and other provisions. Wright was able to escape his captivity and reach the fleet. In the Battle of the Rice Boats
in early March, the British successfully removed from Savannah a number of merchant vessels containing the desired supplies.
Crucial in any operation in retaking the South would be the possession of a port to bring in supplies and men. To this end, the British organized an expedition to establish a strong post somewhere in the southern colonies, and sent military leaders to recruit Loyalists in North Carolina. The expedition's departure from Europe was significantly delayed, and the Loyalist force that was recruited to meet it was decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in late February 1776. When General Sir Henry Clinton
arrived at Cape Fear, North Carolina, in May, he found conditions there unsuitable for a strong post. Scouting by the Royal Navy
identified Charleston, South Carolina
, whose defenses were unfinished and seemed to be vulnerable, as a more suitable location. In June 1776, Clinton led an assault on Fort Sullivan
, which guarded the Charleston harbor. Clinton failed to order a complete reconnaissance of the area. His 2,200 men force was landed on Long Island, adjacent to Sullivan's Island on which the fort was positioned; the channel dividing the two islands was too deep for his troops to ford. Instead of re-embarking on his boats, he relied on the Royal Navy commander, Sir Peter Parker
to reduce the fort, which became known after the war as Fort Moultrie. However, the firepower of the British ships was unable to make an impression on the spongy palmetto logs which formed the majority of the defenses of the fort, and the bombardment failed to achieve its aim. It was a humiliating failure, and Clinton's campaign in the Carolinas was called off. The two men argued after the engagement, each blaming the other for the failure of the assault. It is argued that the South was lost by the failure to take Charleston in 1776, as it left the Loyalists unsupported for three years, while allowing the port of Charleston to serve the American cause until 1780.
. This garrison actively supported the activities of Loyalists who fled there from Georgia and other southern states, and were responsible for raiding cattle and other supplies in southern Georgia. The first attempt was organized by Charles Lee
after he took command of the Continental Army
's Southern Department, but sputtered out when he was recalled to the main army. The second attempt was organized by Georgia Governor Button Gwinnett
with minimal help from the new commander of the Southern Department, Robert Howe
in 1777. This expedition also failed, because Gwinnett and his militia commander, Lachlan McIntosh
, could not agree on anything. Some Georgia militia companies actually made it into East Florida, but they were checked in the May Battle of Thomas Creek
. The last expedition was in early 1778. More than 2,000 Continentals and state militia were raised for the effort, but it also fizzled over issues of command between Howe and Georgia governor John Houstoun
. The brief skirmish at Alligator Bridge
in late June between the British and Patriot units left Florida firmly in British hands.
On December 29, 1778, a British expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from New York under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell
captured Savannah, Georgia
. He was joined in mid-January 1779 by Brigadier General Augustine Prevost
, leading troops that marched up from Saint Augustine, taking over outposts along the way. Prevost assumed command of the forces in Georgia, and dispatched Campbell with 1,000 men toward Augusta
with the goals of gaining control of that town and the recruitment of Loyalists.
The remnants of the defense of Savannah had retreated to Purrysburg, South Carolina
, about 12 miles (19.3 km) upriver from Savannah, where they were met by Major General Benjamin Lincoln
, commander of Continental Army
forces in the South. He marched most of the army from Charleston, South Carolina in a move intended to monitor and oppose Prevost. Early in February Prevost sent a few hundred men to occupy Beaufort
in a move probably intended to divert Lincoln's attention from Campbell's movements; Lincoln responded by sending General Moultrie and 300 men to drive them out. The Battle of Beaufort
was largely indecisive, and both contingents eventually returned to their bases.
In the meantime, Campbell had taken control of Augusta without much resistance, and Loyalists were beginning to turn out. While he enrolled more than 1,000 men over a two week period, he was powerless to prevent the defeat of a sizable number of Loyalists by Patriot militia under Andrew Pickens
in the February 14 Battle of Kettle Creek
, only 50 miles (80.5 km) from Augusta. This demonstrated to everyone in the area the limits of the British Army's ability to protect Loyalists. Campbell then quite suddenly left Augusta, apparently in response to the arrival of John Ashe
and more than 1,000 North Carolina militia Lincoln sent to add to the 1,000 militia that were already across the river from Augusta in South Carolina. On the way back to Savannah Campbell turned command of his men to Augustine Prevost's brother Mark. The younger Prevost turned the tables on Ashe, who was following him south, surprising and very nearly destroying his force of 1,300 in the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek
.
By April, Lincoln had been reinforced by large numbers of South Carolina militia and received additional military supplies through Dutch shipments to Charleston, and decided to move toward Augusta. Leaving 1,000 men under the command of General Moultrie at Purrysburg to monitor Augustine Prevost, he began the march north on April 23. Prevost's reaction to this move was to lead 2,500 men from Savannah toward Purrysburg on April 29. Moultrie fell back toward Charleston rather than engaging, and Prevost was within 10 miles (16.1 km) on May 10 before he began to see resistance. Two days later he intercepted a message indicating that Lincoln, alerted to Prevost's advance, was hurrying back from Augusta to assist in the defense of Charleston. Prevost retreated to the islands southwest of Charleston, leaving an entrenched guard at Stono Ferry (near present-day Rantowles, South Carolina
) to cover his retreat. When Lincoln got back to Charleston he led about 1,200 men, mostly untried militia, out after Prevost. These forces were repulsed by the British on June 20 in the Battle of Stono Ferry
. The rear guard, having succeeded in its objective, abandoned that post a few days later.
was made. Under the leadership of General Lincoln with the assistance of a French naval squadron
commanded by Comte d'Estaing
, it was a spectacular failure, with the combined French-American forces suffering as many as 901 casualties, to the British 54. The French Navy found the fortifications of Savannah possessed similar qualities to those which had defied Admiral Peter Parker
at Charleston in 1776. The artillery bombardment had little effect on the defenses, but unlike at Charleston where Clinton had decided against attacking Fort Moultrie by land, Estaing decided to press the assault after the naval bombardment had failed. In this assault, Count Kazimierz Pułaski, the Polish commander of American cavalry
, was fatally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. Lincoln moved his remaining troops to Charleston to assist in the construction of its defenses.
, scuttled five of his eight frigates in the harbor to make a boom for its defense. Inside the city, General Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British Colonel
Banastre Tarleton
cut off the city's supply lines in victories at Moncks Corner
in April and Lenud's Ferry
in early May, Charleston was surrounded. Clinton began constructing siege lines on March 11 and commenced the bombardment of the town.
On May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the American Civil War
. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war and leaving the American military structure in the South in ruins. It was only when Nathanael Greene
slipped past Cornwallis after the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in 1781 that the British finally lost this advantage in the South.
The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw toward North Carolina
but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the Battle of Waxhaws
on May 29. A story spread after the battle that Tarleton had massacred many Patriots after they had surrendered, whose veracity (but not consequences) are still debated among historians. "Bloody Tarleton" or "Bloody Ban" became a hated name, and "Tarleton's quarters"—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or "quarter
")—soon became a rallying cry. Whether or not the battle was the massacre that it was claimed, its ramifications were felt throughout the campaign. When a Loyalist militia surrendered at the end of the Battle of Kings Mountain
, many of them were killed when Patriot marksmen continued to fire while shouting "Tarleton's Quarters!". Tarleton later published an account of the war in which he glossed over accusations of misconduct towards American prisoners, and portrayed himself in an unabashedly positive light.
such as Francis Marion
. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress
dispatched General Horatio Gates
, the victor of Saratoga, to the South with a new army, but Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the Battle of Camden
on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. At this stage in the war in the South, the American cause was at an extremely low ebb.
The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. Attempts to raise Loyalists in large numbers in North Carolina were effectively crushed when Patriot militia defeated a large force of Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain
on October 7, 1780. The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed; not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at risk once the British army moved on. Kings Mountain and continuing harassment of his communications and supply lines by militia forces in South Carolina forced Cornwallis to winter in South Carolina.
Gates was replaced by George Washington
's most dependable subordinate, General Nathanael Greene
. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General Daniel Morgan
, a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the Battle of Cowpens
on January 17, 1781. As he was after Kings Mountain, Cornwallis was later criticized for detaching part of his army without adequate support. Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of skirmishes and military movements referred to as the "Race to the Dan" (so named because the Dan River
flows close to the border between North Carolina and Virginia), where each encounter resulted in a tactical victory for the British but gave them no strategic advantage. Cornwallis, who knew that Greene had divided his forces and wanted to face either Morgan's or Greene's contingent before they could rejoin, stripped his army of all excess baggage in an effort to keep up with the fast-moving Patriots. When Greene learned of this decision, his gleeful response was "Then, he is ours!" Cornwallis' lack of provisions as a consequence played a role in his later difficulties.
General Greene first engaged Cornwallis at Cowan's Ford, where he sent William Lee Davidson
with 900 men. The battle was near an end when Davidson was killed in the river, after which the Americans retreated. Greene was weakened but he continued his delaying tactics, fighting a dozen more skirmishes in North and South Carolina against Cornwallis and his officers. About 2,000 British troops died in these engagements. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." His tactics have been likened to the Fabian strategy
of Fabius Maximus
, the Roman general who wore down the superior forces of the Carthaginian Hannibal
by a slow war of attrition
. Greene eventually felt strong enough to face Cornwallis directly near Guilford, North Carolina. Although Cornwallis was the tactical victor in the Battle of Guilford Court House
, the casualties suffered forced him to retreat to Wilmington
for resupply and reinforcement.
While Cornwallis was unable to completely destroy Greene, he recognized that most of the supplies that the American forces were relying on were coming from Virginia
, a state that up to this point in the war had been relatively untouched. Against the wishes of Sir Henry Clinton, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia in the hopes that cutting the supply lines to the Carolinas would make American resistance there impossible. This theory was supported by Lord George Germain in a series of letters that left Clinton out of the decision-making procedure for the Southern Army, despite his nominally being its overall commander. Without informing Clinton, Cornwallis marched north from Wilmington into Virginia to engage in raiding operations, where he eventually met the army commanded by William Phillips and Benedict Arnold
that had engaged in raiding activities there.
When Cornwallis left Greensboro for Wilmington, he left the road open for Greene to begin the American reconquest of South Carolina. This he achieved by the end of June, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord Rawdon
's hands at Hobkirk's Hill
(2 miles north of Camden
) on April 25. From May 22 to June 19, 1781 Greene led the Siege of Ninety-Six
, which he was forced to abandon when word arrived that Rawdon was bringing troops to relieve the siege. However, the actions of Greene and militia commanders like Francis Marion
drove Rawdon to eventually abandon Ninety Six and Camden, effectively reducing the British presence in South Carolina to the port of Charleston. The town of Augusta, Georgia
was also besieged
on May 22, and fell to Patriot forces under Andrew Pickens
and Harry "Light Horse" Lee on June 6, reducing the British presence in that state to the port of Savannah.
Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills of the Santee River
. On September 8, with 2,600 men, he engaged British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart
at Eutaw Springs
. Americans who fell in this battle were immortalized by American author Philip Freneau in his 1781 poem "To the Memory of Brave Americans." The battle, although tactically a draw, so weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston
, where Greene penned them during the remaining months of the war.
On arrival in Virginia, Cornwallis took command of the existing British forces in the region, which had been commanded first by turncoat Benedict Arnold
and then by Major General
William Phillips. Phillips, a good personal friend of Cornwallis, died two days before Cornwallis reached his position at Petersburg
. Having marched without informing Clinton of his movements (communications between the two British commanders was by sea and extremely slow, sometimes up to three weeks), Cornwallis sent word of his northward march and engaged in destroying American supplies in the Chesapeake
region.
In March 1781, in response to the threat of Arnold and Phillips, General Washington had dispatched the Marquis de Lafayette to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. It was during this period that Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to choose a position on the Virginia Peninsula
—referred to in contemporary letters as the "Williamsburg Neck"—and construct a fortified naval post to shelter ships of the line
. In complying with this order, Cornwallis put himself in a position to become trapped. With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de Grasse
and General George Washington
's combined French-American army, Cornwallis found himself cut off. After the Royal Navy
fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves
was defeated by the French at the Battle of the Chesapeake
, and the French siege train arrived from Newport, Rhode Island
, his position became untenable. He surrendered to General Washington and the French commander the Comte de Rochambeau
on October 19, 1781.
Cornwallis reported this disaster to Clinton in a letter which opened:
in 1782. Such a shocking reversal in fortune, coming as it had on the back of a rare naval defeat, served to increase the shift in British popular opinion against the war. The North Ministry
collapsed, and no further major operation on the American continent occurred for the rest of the war. Many historians contend that while Saratoga started the decline of British fortunes in the Revolution, Yorktown was its death knell.
Theater (warfare)
In warfare, a theater, is defined as an area or place within which important military events occur or are progressing. The entirety of the air, land, and sea area that is or that may potentially become involved in war operations....
of operations in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
in the second half of the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
. During the first three years of the conflict, the primary military encounters had been in the north, focused on campaigns around the cities of Boston
Boston campaign
The Boston campaign was the opening campaign of the American Revolutionary War. The campaign was primarily concerned with the formation of American colonial irregular militia units, and their transformation into a unified Continental Army...
, New York
New York and New Jersey campaign
The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777...
, and Philadelphia
Philadelphia campaign
The Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress...
. After the failure of the Saratoga campaign
Saratoga campaign
The Saratoga Campaign was an attempt by Great Britain to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War...
, the British
Kingdom of Great Britain
The former Kingdom of Great Britain, sometimes described as the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', That the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England, shall upon the 1st May next ensuing the date hereof, and forever after, be United into One Kingdom by the Name of GREAT BRITAIN. was a sovereign...
largely abandoned operations in the Middle Colonies
Middle Colonies
The Middle Colonies comprised the middle region of the Thirteen Colonies of the British Empire in Northern America. In 1776 during the American Revolution, the Middle Colonies became independent of Britain as the states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York and Delaware.Much of the area was part of...
and pursued a strategy of pacification
Peace
Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the...
in the Southern Colonies
Southern Colonies
The Southern Colonies in North America were established by Europeans during the 16th and 17th centuries and consisted of olden South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia and Georgia. Their historical names were the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, the Province of Carolina, and the Province...
.
Before 1778, the southern colonies were largely dominated by Patriot
Patriot (American Revolution)
Patriots is a name often used to describe the colonists of the British Thirteen United Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution. It was their leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of America an independent nation...
-controlled governments and militias, although there was also a Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
presence that played a role in the defense of Charleston
Battle of Sullivan's Island
The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels...
in 1776, suppression of Loyalist
Loyalist (American Revolution)
Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the Kingdom of Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men. They were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution...
militia, and attempts to drive the British from East Florida
East Florida
East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763–1783 and of Spain from 1783–1822. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763; as its name implies it consisted of the eastern part of the region of Florida, with West Florida comprising the western parts. Its capital...
, which remained strongly Loyalist.
The British "southern strategy" began in late 1778 with the capture
Capture of Savannah
The Battle of Savannah, or sometimes the First Battle of Savannah due to a siege later in the campaign, was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29, 1778 between local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units holding the city and a British invasion force under the...
of Savannah, Georgia
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah is the largest city and the county seat of Chatham County, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Established in 1733, the city of Savannah was the colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. Today Savannah is an industrial center and an important...
, which was followed in 1780 by operations in South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
that included the defeat of two Continental Armies at Charleston
Siege of Charleston
The Siege of Charleston was one of the major battles which took place towards the end of the American Revolutionary War, after the British began to shift their strategic focus towards the American Southern Colonies. After about six weeks of siege, Continental Army Major General Benjamin Lincoln...
and Camden
Battle of Camden
The Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
. General Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
, who took over as Continental Army commander after Camden, engaged in a strategy of avoidance and attrition against the British. The two forces fought a string of battles, most of which were tactical victories for the British. In almost all cases, however, the "victories" strategically weakened the British army by the high cost in casualties, while leaving the Continental Army intact to continue fighting. This was best exemplified by the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. Several American victories, such as the Battle of Cowpens
Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a decisive victory by Patriot Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
and the Battle of King's Mountain also served to weaken the overall British military strength. The culminating engagement, the Siege of Yorktown
Siege of Yorktown
The Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Yorktown, or Surrender of Yorktown in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis...
, ended with the British army's surrender, and essentially marked the end of British power in the Colonies.
Early operations, 1775–1778
In most colonies the British officials quickly departed as the Patriots took control. In Virginia, the royal governor resisted. In the Gunpowder IncidentGunpowder Incident
The Gunpowder Incident was a conflict early in the American Revolutionary War between Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia, and militia led by Patrick Henry...
on April 20, 1775, Lord Dunmore
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore
John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore was a British peer and colonial governor. He was the son of William Murray, 3rd Earl of Dunmore, and his wife Catherine . He is best remembered as the last royal governor of the Colony of Virginia.John was the eldest son of William and Catherine Murray, and nephew...
, the Royal Governor of Virginia, removed gunpowder stored in Williamsburg
Williamsburg, Virginia
Williamsburg is an independent city located on the Virginia Peninsula in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area of Virginia, USA. As of the 2010 Census, the city had an estimated population of 14,068. It is bordered by James City County and York County, and is an independent city...
to a British warship in the James River
James River (Virginia)
The James River is a river in the U.S. state of Virginia. It is long, extending to if one includes the Jackson River, the longer of its two source tributaries. The James River drains a catchment comprising . The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million...
. Dunmore saw rising unrest in the colony and was trying to deprive Virginia militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
of supplies needed for insurrection. Patriot militia led by Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry was an orator and politician who led the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776 to 1779 and subsequently, from 1784 to 1786...
forced Dunmore to pay for the gunpowder. Dunmore continued to hunt for caches of military equipment and supplies in the following months, acts that were sometimes anticipated by Patriot militia, who would move supplies before his arrival.
Dunmore issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British. After an incident at Kemp's Landing
Battle of Kemp's Landing
The Battle of Kemp's Landing, also known as the Skirmish of Kempsville, was a skirmish in the American Revolutionary War that occurred on November 15, 1775...
in November where Dunmore's troops killed and captured Patriot militiamen, Patriot forces defeated Loyalist troops (which included runaway slaves Dunmore formed into his Ethiopian Regiment
Ethiopian Regiment
Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment or Ethiopian Regiment was the name given to a British colonial military unit organized during the American Revolution by John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, and last Royal Governor of Virginia. Composed of slaves who had escaped from Patriot masters, it was led by...
) at the Battle of Great Bridge
Battle of Great Bridge
The Battle of Great Bridge was fought December 9, 1775, in the area of Great Bridge, Virginia, early in the American Revolutionary War. The victory by Continental Army and militia forces led to the departure of Governor Lord Dunmore and any remaining vestiges of British power from the Colony of...
on December 9. Dunmore and his troops retreated to British ships anchored off Norfolk
Norfolk, Virginia
Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. With a population of 242,803 as of the 2010 Census, it is Virginia's second-largest city behind neighboring Virginia Beach....
; Dunmore bombarded and burned the town
Burning of Norfolk
The Burning of Norfolk was an incident that occurred on January 1, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War. British Royal Navy ships in the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia began shelling the town, and landing parties came ashore to burn specific properties...
on January 1, 1776. He was driven from an island in Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
that summer, and never returned to Virginia. Most of the slaves who enlisted with Dunmore died in combat or from disease.
Georgia's royal governor, James Wright
James Wright (governor)
James Wright was an American colonial lawyer and jurist who was the last British Royal Governor of the Province of Georgia. He was the only Royal Governor of the Thirteen Colonies to regain control of his colony during the American Revolutionary War.James Wright was born in London to Robert Wright...
, nominally remained in power until January 1776, when the unexpected arrival of British ships near Savannah
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah is the largest city and the county seat of Chatham County, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Established in 1733, the city of Savannah was the colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. Today Savannah is an industrial center and an important...
prompted the local Committee of Safety
Committee of Safety (American Revolution)
Many Committees of Safety were established throughout Colonial America at the start of the American Revolution. These committees started to appear in the 1760s as means to discuss the concerns of the time, and often consisted of every male adult in the community...
to order his arrest. Georgia Patriots and Loyalists alike believed the fleet had arrived to provide military support to the governor; it had in fact been sent from the besieged
Siege of Boston
The Siege of Boston was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within...
British forces in Boston, Massachusetts to acquire rice and other provisions. Wright was able to escape his captivity and reach the fleet. In the Battle of the Rice Boats
Battle of the Rice Boats
The Battle of the Rice Boats, also called the Battle of Yamacraw Bluff, was a land and naval battle of the American Revolutionary War that took place in and around the Savannah River on the border between the Province of Georgia and the Province of South Carolina on March 2 and 3, 1776...
in early March, the British successfully removed from Savannah a number of merchant vessels containing the desired supplies.
First attack on Charleston
Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)
General Sir Henry Clinton KB was a British army officer and politician, best known for his service as a general during the American War of Independence. First arriving in Boston in May 1775, from 1778 to 1782 he was the British Commander-in-Chief in North America...
arrived at Cape Fear, North Carolina, in May, he found conditions there unsuitable for a strong post. Scouting by the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
identified Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the second largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It was made the county seat of Charleston County in 1901 when Charleston County was founded. The city's original name was Charles Towne in 1670, and it moved to its present location from a location on the west bank of the...
, whose defenses were unfinished and seemed to be vulnerable, as a more suitable location. In June 1776, Clinton led an assault on Fort Sullivan
Battle of Sullivan's Island
The Battle of Sullivan's Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels...
, which guarded the Charleston harbor. Clinton failed to order a complete reconnaissance of the area. His 2,200 men force was landed on Long Island, adjacent to Sullivan's Island on which the fort was positioned; the channel dividing the two islands was too deep for his troops to ford. Instead of re-embarking on his boats, he relied on the Royal Navy commander, Sir Peter Parker
Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet
Admiral of the Fleet Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet was a British naval officer.-Naval career:Peter Parker was born probably in Ireland. He became a lieutenant in the Royal Navy in 1743 and captain in 1747. In 1761, he took command of HMS Buckingham and helped cover operations on Belle Île...
to reduce the fort, which became known after the war as Fort Moultrie. However, the firepower of the British ships was unable to make an impression on the spongy palmetto logs which formed the majority of the defenses of the fort, and the bombardment failed to achieve its aim. It was a humiliating failure, and Clinton's campaign in the Carolinas was called off. The two men argued after the engagement, each blaming the other for the failure of the assault. It is argued that the South was lost by the failure to take Charleston in 1776, as it left the Loyalists unsupported for three years, while allowing the port of Charleston to serve the American cause until 1780.
Failed attempts at British East Florida
Patriots in Georgia attempted several times to defeat the British garrison that was based at Saint Augustine in British East FloridaEast Florida
East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763–1783 and of Spain from 1783–1822. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763; as its name implies it consisted of the eastern part of the region of Florida, with West Florida comprising the western parts. Its capital...
. This garrison actively supported the activities of Loyalists who fled there from Georgia and other southern states, and were responsible for raiding cattle and other supplies in southern Georgia. The first attempt was organized by Charles Lee
Charles Lee (general)
Charles Lee was a British soldier who later served as a General of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence. Lee served in the British army during the Seven Years War. After the war he sold his commission and served for a time in the Polish army of King Stanislaus II...
after he took command of the Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
's Southern Department, but sputtered out when he was recalled to the main army. The second attempt was organized by Georgia Governor Button Gwinnett
Button Gwinnett
Button Gwinnett was an English-born American political leader who, as a representative of Georgia to the Continental Congress, was the second of the signatories on the United States Declaration of Independence...
with minimal help from the new commander of the Southern Department, Robert Howe
Robert Howe (soldier)
Robert Howe was a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.-Early life:His great-grandfather was James Moore, colonial governor of South Carolina...
in 1777. This expedition also failed, because Gwinnett and his militia commander, Lachlan McIntosh
Lachlan McIntosh
Lachlan McIntosh was a British-born American military and political leader during the American Revolution and the early United States. In a 1777 duel, he shot dead Button Gwinnett, a signer of the Declaration of Independence.-Arrival in Georgia:Lachlan McIntosh was born near Raits, Badenoch,...
, could not agree on anything. Some Georgia militia companies actually made it into East Florida, but they were checked in the May Battle of Thomas Creek
Battle of Thomas Creek
The Battle of Thomas Creek, or the Thomas Creek Massacre , was an ambush of a small force of Georgia militia cavalry by a mixed force of British Army, Loyalist militia, and Indians near the mouth of Thomas Creek in northern East Florida...
. The last expedition was in early 1778. More than 2,000 Continentals and state militia were raised for the effort, but it also fizzled over issues of command between Howe and Georgia governor John Houstoun
John Houstoun
John Houstoun was an American lawyer and statesman from Savannah, Georgia. He was a delegate for Georgia in the Continental Congress in 1775. He was the 6th Governor of Georgia, in 1778, and again in 1784-1785.-Personal life:...
. The brief skirmish at Alligator Bridge
Battle of Alligator Bridge
The Battle of Alligator Bridge took place on June 30, 1778, and was the only major engagement in an unsuccessful campaign to conquer British East Florida during the American Revolutionary War...
in late June between the British and Patriot units left Florida firmly in British hands.
The Loyalist question
In 1778, the British once again turned their attention to the South, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists. This assumption of support was based on the accounts of Loyalist exiles in London who had direct access to the American Secretary, George Germain. Keen to recover their lands and be rewarded for their loyalty to the crown, these men realized that the best way in which to convince the British to undertake a major operation in the South would be to exaggerate the level of potential Loyalist support—as a group, they had great influence on the British ministers in London. The British operated under the expectation that they would find substantial support for their actions, if only they liberated the right areas, until almost the end of the war. While in South Carolina, Cornwallis wrote in a letter to Clinton that "Our assurances of attachment from our poor distressed friends in North Carolina are as strong as ever." For the most part, this assumption was incorrect, as Cornwallis began to realize as the campaign progressed.Early moves in the South
Archibald Campbell (British Army officer)
General Sir Archibald Campbell KB served as Governor of Jamaica and Madras. He was a major Scottish landowner, Heritable Usher of the White Rod for Scotland and a Member of Parliament for the Stirling Burghs.-Birth:...
captured Savannah, Georgia
Capture of Savannah
The Battle of Savannah, or sometimes the First Battle of Savannah due to a siege later in the campaign, was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29, 1778 between local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units holding the city and a British invasion force under the...
. He was joined in mid-January 1779 by Brigadier General Augustine Prevost
Augustine Prevost
Major General Augustine Prévost was a Swiss-born British soldier who served in the Seven Years' War and the American War of Independence.-Seven Years War:...
, leading troops that marched up from Saint Augustine, taking over outposts along the way. Prevost assumed command of the forces in Georgia, and dispatched Campbell with 1,000 men toward Augusta
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta is a consolidated city in the U.S. state of Georgia, located along the Savannah River. As of the 2010 census, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 195,844 not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe.Augusta is the principal city of the Augusta-Richmond County...
with the goals of gaining control of that town and the recruitment of Loyalists.
The remnants of the defense of Savannah had retreated to Purrysburg, South Carolina
Purrysburg, South Carolina
Purrysburg was a colonial town in Jasper County, South Carolina. While the town itself was abandoned, the settlers were successful. The town was located on the South Carolina bank of the Savannah River....
, about 12 miles (19.3 km) upriver from Savannah, where they were met by Major General Benjamin Lincoln
Benjamin Lincoln
Benjamin Lincoln was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War...
, commander of Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
forces in the South. He marched most of the army from Charleston, South Carolina in a move intended to monitor and oppose Prevost. Early in February Prevost sent a few hundred men to occupy Beaufort
Beaufort, South Carolina
Beaufort is a city in and the county seat of Beaufort County, South Carolina, United States. Chartered in 1711, it is the second-oldest city in South Carolina, behind Charleston. The city's population was 12,361 in the 2010 census. It is located in the Hilton Head Island-Beaufort Micropolitan...
in a move probably intended to divert Lincoln's attention from Campbell's movements; Lincoln responded by sending General Moultrie and 300 men to drive them out. The Battle of Beaufort
Battle of Beaufort
The Battle of Beaufort or the Battle of Port Royal Island was a battle of the American Revolutionary War that took place on February 3, 1779 near Beaufort, South Carolina. The British commander of forces at Savannah, Georgia, General Augustine Prevost, sent 200 British regulars to seize Port Royal...
was largely indecisive, and both contingents eventually returned to their bases.
In the meantime, Campbell had taken control of Augusta without much resistance, and Loyalists were beginning to turn out. While he enrolled more than 1,000 men over a two week period, he was powerless to prevent the defeat of a sizable number of Loyalists by Patriot militia under Andrew Pickens
Andrew Pickens (congressman)
Andrew Pickens was a militia leader in the American Revolution and a member of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina.-Early life:...
in the February 14 Battle of Kettle Creek
Battle of Kettle Creek
The Battle of Kettle Creek was one of the most important battles of the American Revolutionary War to be fought in Georgia. The battle was fought on February 14, 1779, in Wilkes County about eight miles from present-day Washington, Georgia...
, only 50 miles (80.5 km) from Augusta. This demonstrated to everyone in the area the limits of the British Army's ability to protect Loyalists. Campbell then quite suddenly left Augusta, apparently in response to the arrival of John Ashe
John Ashe
John Ashe may refer to:*John Ashe *John Ashe , American Revolutionary War figure*John Baptista Ashe , North Carolina delegate to the Continental Congress...
and more than 1,000 North Carolina militia Lincoln sent to add to the 1,000 militia that were already across the river from Augusta in South Carolina. On the way back to Savannah Campbell turned command of his men to Augustine Prevost's brother Mark. The younger Prevost turned the tables on Ashe, who was following him south, surprising and very nearly destroying his force of 1,300 in the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek
Battle of Brier Creek
The Battle of Brier Creek was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on March 3, 1779 near the confluence of Brier Creek with the Savannah River in eastern Georgia...
.
By April, Lincoln had been reinforced by large numbers of South Carolina militia and received additional military supplies through Dutch shipments to Charleston, and decided to move toward Augusta. Leaving 1,000 men under the command of General Moultrie at Purrysburg to monitor Augustine Prevost, he began the march north on April 23. Prevost's reaction to this move was to lead 2,500 men from Savannah toward Purrysburg on April 29. Moultrie fell back toward Charleston rather than engaging, and Prevost was within 10 miles (16.1 km) on May 10 before he began to see resistance. Two days later he intercepted a message indicating that Lincoln, alerted to Prevost's advance, was hurrying back from Augusta to assist in the defense of Charleston. Prevost retreated to the islands southwest of Charleston, leaving an entrenched guard at Stono Ferry (near present-day Rantowles, South Carolina
Rantowles, South Carolina
Rantowles, South Carolina is a hamlet or location in what is now Hollywood, South Carolina, near the Stono River.Google maps places it specifically on SC 162 near its intersection with United States Route 17....
) to cover his retreat. When Lincoln got back to Charleston he led about 1,200 men, mostly untried militia, out after Prevost. These forces were repulsed by the British on June 20 in the Battle of Stono Ferry
Battle of Stono Ferry
The Battle of Stono Ferry was an American Revolutionary War battle, fought on June 20, 1779, near Charleston, South Carolina. The rear guard from a British expedition retreating from an aborted attempt to take Charleston held off an assault by poorly-trained militia forces under American General...
. The rear guard, having succeeded in its objective, abandoned that post a few days later.
Defense of Savannah
In October 1779, an attempt by French and Revolutionary forces to retake SavannahSiege of Savannah
The Siege of Savannah or the Second Battle of Savannah was an encounter of the American Revolutionary War in 1779. The year before, the city of Savannah, Georgia, had been captured by a British expeditionary corps under Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell. The siege itself consisted of a joint...
was made. Under the leadership of General Lincoln with the assistance of a French naval squadron
Squadron (naval)
A squadron, or naval squadron, is a unit of 3-4 major warships, transport ships, submarines, or sometimes small craft that may be part of a larger task force or a fleet...
commanded by Comte d'Estaing
Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing
Jean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, comte d'Estaing was a French general, and admiral. He began his service as a soldier in the War of the Austrian Succession, briefly spending time as a prisoner of war of the British during the Seven Years' War...
, it was a spectacular failure, with the combined French-American forces suffering as many as 901 casualties, to the British 54. The French Navy found the fortifications of Savannah possessed similar qualities to those which had defied Admiral Peter Parker
Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet
Admiral of the Fleet Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet was a British naval officer.-Naval career:Peter Parker was born probably in Ireland. He became a lieutenant in the Royal Navy in 1743 and captain in 1747. In 1761, he took command of HMS Buckingham and helped cover operations on Belle Île...
at Charleston in 1776. The artillery bombardment had little effect on the defenses, but unlike at Charleston where Clinton had decided against attacking Fort Moultrie by land, Estaing decided to press the assault after the naval bombardment had failed. In this assault, Count Kazimierz Pułaski, the Polish commander of American cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
, was fatally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. Lincoln moved his remaining troops to Charleston to assist in the construction of its defenses.
Second attack on Charleston
Clinton finally moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. His advance on the city was uncontested; the American naval commander, Commodore Abraham WhippleAbraham Whipple
Abraham Whipple was an American revolutionary naval commander in the Continental Navy. Whipple was born near Providence, Rhode Island and chose to be a seafarer early in his life. He embarked upon a career in the lucrative West Indies trade, working for Moses and John Brown...
, scuttled five of his eight frigates in the harbor to make a boom for its defense. Inside the city, General Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British Colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
Banastre Tarleton
Banastre Tarleton
General Sir Banastre Tarleton, 1st Baronet, GCB was a British soldier and politician.He is today probably best remembered for his military service during the American War of Independence. He became the focal point of a propaganda campaign claiming that he had fired upon surrendering Continental...
cut off the city's supply lines in victories at Moncks Corner
Battle of Monck's Corner
The Battle of Monck's Corner was fought on April 14, 1780, outside the city of Charleston, South Carolina, which was under siege by British forces under the command of General Sir Henry Clinton in the American Revolutionary War. The British Legion, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Banastre...
in April and Lenud's Ferry
Battle of Lenud's Ferry
The Battle of Lenud's Ferry was a battle of the American Revolutionary War that was fought on May 6, 1780 in present-day Berkeley County, South Carolina...
in early May, Charleston was surrounded. Clinton began constructing siege lines on March 11 and commenced the bombardment of the town.
On May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war and leaving the American military structure in the South in ruins. It was only when Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
slipped past Cornwallis after the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in 1781 that the British finally lost this advantage in the South.
The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw toward North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the Battle of Waxhaws
Waxhaw massacre
The Battle of Waxhaws took place during the American Revolution on May 29, 1780, near Lancaster, South Carolina, between a Continental Army force led by Abraham Buford and a mainly Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton...
on May 29. A story spread after the battle that Tarleton had massacred many Patriots after they had surrendered, whose veracity (but not consequences) are still debated among historians. "Bloody Tarleton" or "Bloody Ban" became a hated name, and "Tarleton's quarters"—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or "quarter
No quarter
A victor gives no quarter when the victor shows no clemency or mercy and refuses to spare the life in return for the surrender at discretion of a vanquished opponent....
")—soon became a rallying cry. Whether or not the battle was the massacre that it was claimed, its ramifications were felt throughout the campaign. When a Loyalist militia surrendered at the end of the Battle of Kings Mountain
Battle of Kings Mountain
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive battle between the Patriot and Loyalist militias in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
, many of them were killed when Patriot marksmen continued to fire while shouting "Tarleton's Quarters!". Tarleton later published an account of the war in which he glossed over accusations of misconduct towards American prisoners, and portrayed himself in an unabashedly positive light.
Cornwallis takes command
After Charleston, organized American military activity in the South collapsed. The states, however, carried on their functions, and the war was carried on by partisansPartisan (military)
A partisan is a member of an irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation by some kind of insurgent activity...
such as Francis Marion
Francis Marion
Francis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. Acting with Continental Army and South Carolina militia commissions, he was a persistent adversary of the British in their occupation of South Carolina in 1780 and 1781, even after the Continental Army was driven...
. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress
Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution....
dispatched General Horatio Gates
Horatio Gates
Horatio Lloyd Gates was a retired British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga – Benedict Arnold, who led the attack, was finally forced from the field when he was shot in the leg – and...
, the victor of Saratoga, to the South with a new army, but Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the Battle of Camden
Battle of Camden
The Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. At this stage in the war in the South, the American cause was at an extremely low ebb.
The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. Attempts to raise Loyalists in large numbers in North Carolina were effectively crushed when Patriot militia defeated a large force of Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain
Battle of Kings Mountain
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive battle between the Patriot and Loyalist militias in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
on October 7, 1780. The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed; not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at risk once the British army moved on. Kings Mountain and continuing harassment of his communications and supply lines by militia forces in South Carolina forced Cornwallis to winter in South Carolina.
Gates was replaced by George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
's most dependable subordinate, General Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan was an American pioneer, soldier, and United States Representative from Virginia. One of the most gifted battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War, he later commanded troops during the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion.-Early years:Most authorities believe that...
, a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the Battle of Cowpens
Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a decisive victory by Patriot Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War...
on January 17, 1781. As he was after Kings Mountain, Cornwallis was later criticized for detaching part of his army without adequate support. Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of skirmishes and military movements referred to as the "Race to the Dan" (so named because the Dan River
Dan River
The Dan River flows in the U.S. states of North Carolina and Virginia. It originates in Patrick County, Virginia, and crosses the state border into Stokes County, North Carolina. It then flows into Rockingham County. From there it goes back into Virginia. It reenters North Carolina near the...
flows close to the border between North Carolina and Virginia), where each encounter resulted in a tactical victory for the British but gave them no strategic advantage. Cornwallis, who knew that Greene had divided his forces and wanted to face either Morgan's or Greene's contingent before they could rejoin, stripped his army of all excess baggage in an effort to keep up with the fast-moving Patriots. When Greene learned of this decision, his gleeful response was "Then, he is ours!" Cornwallis' lack of provisions as a consequence played a role in his later difficulties.
William Lee Davidson
William Lee Davidson was a North Carolina militia general during the American Revolutionary War.-Origins and education:His father moved with his family to Rowan County, North Carolina, in 1750, and William, the youngest son, was educated at Queen's Museum in Charlotte.-Military Campaigns:Active...
with 900 men. The battle was near an end when Davidson was killed in the river, after which the Americans retreated. Greene was weakened but he continued his delaying tactics, fighting a dozen more skirmishes in North and South Carolina against Cornwallis and his officers. About 2,000 British troops died in these engagements. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." His tactics have been likened to the Fabian strategy
Fabian strategy
The Fabian strategy is a military strategy where pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition and indirection. While avoiding decisive battles, the side employing this strategy harasses its enemy through skirmishes to cause...
of Fabius Maximus
Fabius Maximus
Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator was a Roman politician and general, born in Rome around 280 BC and died in Rome in 203 BC. He was Roman Consul five times and was twice Dictator in 221 and again in 217 BC. He reached the office of Roman Censor in 230 BC...
, the Roman general who wore down the superior forces of the Carthaginian Hannibal
Hannibal Barca
Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca Hannibal's date of death is most commonly given as 183 BC, but there is a possibility it could have taken place in 182 BC. was a Carthaginian military commander and tactician. He is generally considered one of the greatest military commanders in history...
by a slow war of attrition
War of Attrition
The international community and both countries attempted to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. The Jarring Mission of the United Nations was supposed to ensure that the terms of UN Security Council Resolution 242 would be observed, but by late 1970 it was clear that this mission had been...
. Greene eventually felt strong enough to face Cornwallis directly near Guilford, North Carolina. Although Cornwallis was the tactical victor in the Battle of Guilford Court House
Battle of Guilford Court House
The Battle of Guilford Court House was a battle fought on March 15, 1781 in Greensboro, the county seat of Guilford County, North Carolina, during the American Revolutionary War...
, the casualties suffered forced him to retreat to Wilmington
Wilmington, North Carolina
Wilmington is a port city in and is the county seat of New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. The population is 106,476 according to the 2010 Census, making it the eighth most populous city in the state of North Carolina...
for resupply and reinforcement.
While Cornwallis was unable to completely destroy Greene, he recognized that most of the supplies that the American forces were relying on were coming from Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, a state that up to this point in the war had been relatively untouched. Against the wishes of Sir Henry Clinton, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia in the hopes that cutting the supply lines to the Carolinas would make American resistance there impossible. This theory was supported by Lord George Germain in a series of letters that left Clinton out of the decision-making procedure for the Southern Army, despite his nominally being its overall commander. Without informing Clinton, Cornwallis marched north from Wilmington into Virginia to engage in raiding operations, where he eventually met the army commanded by William Phillips and Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold V was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war in the Continental Army but later defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and plotted to surrender it to the British forces...
that had engaged in raiding activities there.
When Cornwallis left Greensboro for Wilmington, he left the road open for Greene to begin the American reconquest of South Carolina. This he achieved by the end of June, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord Rawdon
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
Francis Edward Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings KG PC , styled The Honourable Francis Rawdon from birth until 1762 and as The Lord Rawdon between 1762 and 1783 and known as The Earl of Moira between 1793 and 1816, was an Irish-British politician and military officer who served as...
's hands at Hobkirk's Hill
Battle of Hobkirk's Hill
The Battle of Hobkirk's Hill was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought on April 25, 1781, near Camden, South Carolina...
(2 miles north of Camden
Camden, South Carolina
Camden is the fourth oldest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina and is also the county seat of Kershaw County, South Carolina, United States. The population was an estimated 7,103 in 2009...
) on April 25. From May 22 to June 19, 1781 Greene led the Siege of Ninety-Six
Siege of Ninety-Six
The Siege of Ninety Six was a siege late in the American Revolutionary War. From May 22 to June 18, 1781, Continental Army Major General Nathanael Greene led 1,000 troops in a siege against the 550 Loyalists in the fortified village of Ninety Six, South Carolina. The 28-day siege centered on an...
, which he was forced to abandon when word arrived that Rawdon was bringing troops to relieve the siege. However, the actions of Greene and militia commanders like Francis Marion
Francis Marion
Francis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. Acting with Continental Army and South Carolina militia commissions, he was a persistent adversary of the British in their occupation of South Carolina in 1780 and 1781, even after the Continental Army was driven...
drove Rawdon to eventually abandon Ninety Six and Camden, effectively reducing the British presence in South Carolina to the port of Charleston. The town of Augusta, Georgia
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta is a consolidated city in the U.S. state of Georgia, located along the Savannah River. As of the 2010 census, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 195,844 not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe.Augusta is the principal city of the Augusta-Richmond County...
was also besieged
Siege of Augusta
The Siege of Augusta began on May 22, 1781 and was conducted by General Andrew Pickens and Colonel Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee against British troops occupying the town of Augusta, Georgia. Fort Cornwallis, the primary defenses, were successfully exposed to cannon fire by the construction of a...
on May 22, and fell to Patriot forces under Andrew Pickens
Andrew Pickens (congressman)
Andrew Pickens was a militia leader in the American Revolution and a member of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina.-Early life:...
and Harry "Light Horse" Lee on June 6, reducing the British presence in that state to the port of Savannah.
Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills of the Santee River
Santee River
The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage and navigation for the central coastal plain of South Carolina, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean approximately from its farthest headwater on the Catawba River...
. On September 8, with 2,600 men, he engaged British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart
Alexander Stewart
Alexander Stewart may refer to:* Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland , Scottish magnate* Alexander Stewart , Scottish prelate, Bishop of Ross...
at Eutaw Springs
Battle of Eutaw Springs
The Battle of Eutaw Springs was a battle of the American Revolutionary War, and was the last major engagement of the war in the Carolinas.-Background:...
. Americans who fell in this battle were immortalized by American author Philip Freneau in his 1781 poem "To the Memory of Brave Americans." The battle, although tactically a draw, so weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the second largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It was made the county seat of Charleston County in 1901 when Charleston County was founded. The city's original name was Charles Towne in 1670, and it moved to its present location from a location on the west bank of the...
, where Greene penned them during the remaining months of the war.
Yorktown
Benedict Arnold
Benedict Arnold V was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war in the Continental Army but later defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and plotted to surrender it to the British forces...
and then by Major General
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
William Phillips. Phillips, a good personal friend of Cornwallis, died two days before Cornwallis reached his position at Petersburg
Petersburg, Virginia
Petersburg is an independent city in Virginia, United States located on the Appomattox River and south of the state capital city of Richmond. The city's population was 32,420 as of 2010, predominantly of African-American ethnicity...
. Having marched without informing Clinton of his movements (communications between the two British commanders was by sea and extremely slow, sometimes up to three weeks), Cornwallis sent word of his northward march and engaged in destroying American supplies in the Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
region.
In March 1781, in response to the threat of Arnold and Phillips, General Washington had dispatched the Marquis de Lafayette to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. It was during this period that Cornwallis received orders from Clinton to choose a position on the Virginia Peninsula
Virginia Peninsula
The Virginia Peninsula is a peninsula in southeast Virginia, USA, bounded by the York River, James River, Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay.Hampton Roads is the common name for the metropolitan area that surrounds the body of water of the same name...
—referred to in contemporary letters as the "Williamsburg Neck"—and construct a fortified naval post to shelter ships of the line
Ship of the line
A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th through the mid-19th century to take part in the naval tactic known as the line of battle, in which two columns of opposing warships would manoeuvre to bring the greatest weight of broadside guns to bear...
. In complying with this order, Cornwallis put himself in a position to become trapped. With the arrival of the French fleet under the Comte de Grasse
François Joseph Paul de Grasse
Lieutenant Général des Armées Navales François-Joseph Paul, marquis de Grasse Tilly, comte de Grasse was a French admiral. He is best known for his command of the French fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, which led directly to the British surrender at Yorktown...
and General George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
's combined French-American army, Cornwallis found himself cut off. After the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves
Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves
|-|-...
was defeated by the French at the Battle of the Chesapeake
Battle of the Chesapeake
The Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas...
, and the French siege train arrived from Newport, Rhode Island
Newport, Rhode Island
Newport is a city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States, about south of Providence. Known as a New England summer resort and for the famous Newport Mansions, it is the home of Salve Regina University and Naval Station Newport which houses the United States Naval War...
, his position became untenable. He surrendered to General Washington and the French commander the Comte de Rochambeau
Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau
Marshal of France Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau was a French nobleman and general who participated in the American Revolutionary War as the commander-in-chief of the French Expeditionary Force which came to help the American Continental Army...
on October 19, 1781.
Cornwallis reported this disaster to Clinton in a letter which opened:
I have the mortification to inform Your Excellency that I have been forced to give up the posts of York and Gloucester and to surrender the troops under my command by capitulation, on the 19th instant, as prisoners of war to the combined forces of America.
Consequences
With the surrender at Yorktown, the full participation of French forces in that battle, and the resulting loss of Cornwallis' army, the British war effort ground to a halt. The sole remaining British army of any size remaining in America was that under Sir Henry Clinton in New York. Clinton, paralyzed by the defeat, made no further action until his eventual replacement by CarletonGuy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, KB , known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Irish-British soldier and administrator...
in 1782. Such a shocking reversal in fortune, coming as it had on the back of a rare naval defeat, served to increase the shift in British popular opinion against the war. The North Ministry
North Ministry
The North Ministry governed the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1770 until 1782. Overseeing in this time the Falklands Crisis, the Gordon Riots and much of the American War of Independence. It was headed by the Tory politician Lord North and served under George III.-Membership:...
collapsed, and no further major operation on the American continent occurred for the rest of the war. Many historians contend that while Saratoga started the decline of British fortunes in the Revolution, Yorktown was its death knell.
Further reading
- Alden, John R. The South in the Revolution, 1763–1789. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957.
- Cashin, Edward J. William Bartram and the American Revolution on the Southern Frontier. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2000. ISBN 1-57003-325-0.
- Chidsey, Donald Barr. The War in the South: the Carolinas and Georgia in the American Revolution, an Informal History. New York: Crown Publishers, 1969.
- Coker, P. C., III. Charleston's Maritime Heritage, 1670-1865: An Illustrated History. Charleston, S.C.: Coker-Craft, 1987. 314 pp.
- Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978. ISBN 0-8078-1313-3.
- Eckenrode, H. J. The Revolution in Virginia. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1964.
- Lumpkin, Henry. From Savannah to Yorktown: the American Revolution in the South. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1981. ISBN 0-87249-408-X.
- O'Donnell, James H. Southern Indians in the American Revolution. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973. ISBN 0-87049-131-8.
- Russell, David Lee, The America Revolution in the Southern Colonies, Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7864-4339-0
- Selby, John E. The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783. Williamsburg, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1988. ISBN 0-87935-075-X.
- Thayer, Theodore. Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the American Revolution. 1960.
External links
- The War of American Independence Select Bibliography of Operations: Southern Theater compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History