Space Shuttle retirement
Encyclopedia
The retirement of NASA's
Space Shuttle
fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery
was the first of the three active space shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission
on March 9, 2011; Space Shuttle Endeavour
did so
on June 1. The final shuttle mission
was completed with the landing of Atlantis
on July 21, 2011, bringing about the end of the 30-year Space Shuttle program
.
The Shuttle was originally targeted for retirement in 2010 (Atlantis was to be retired first after STS-132
in May of that year), but the program was extended when the two final planned missions were delayed until 2011. Later, one additional mission was added for Atlantis for July 2011, extending the program further. Counter-proposals to the shuttle's retirement were considered by Congress and the prime contractor United Space Alliance
as late as spring 2010.
Hardware developed for the Space Shuttle met various ends with conclusion of the program, including donation, disuse and/or disposal, or reuse. An example of reuse, is that one of the three Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
(MPLM) was converted to a permanent module for the International Space Station
.
* Prior to move to New York, Enterprise has been located at the Udvar-Hazy Center, Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum
, Chantilly, Virginia
, where Discovery will take its place.
On April 12, 2011, NASA announced a selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters:
Museums and facilities not selected to receive an orbiter were disappointed. Elected officials representing Houston, Texas, location of the Johnson Space Center; and Dayton, Ohio, location of National Museum of the United States Air Force
called for Congressional investigations into the selection process, though no such action has been taken to date. Local and Congressional politicians in Texas questioned if partisan politics played any role in the selection. Chicago media questioned the decision not to include the Adler Planetarium
in the list of facilities receiving orbiters, pointing to Chicago's 3rd-largest population in the United States. The chair of the NASA committee that made the selections pointed to the guidance from Congress that the orbiters go to facilities where the most people could see them, and the ties to the space program that Southern California (home to Edwards Air Force Base
, where nearly half of shuttle flights have ended and home to the plants which manufactured the orbiters and the Space Shuttle Main Engine
s), the Smithsonian (curator of the nation's air and space artifacts), the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
(where all shuttle launches have originated from and a large tourist draw) and the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum
(which served as the recovery ship for Project Mercury
and Project Gemini
) possess.
The NASA Inspector General released a report on an audit of the selection process for the orbit display locations in August 2011. The report highlighted issues which led to the final decision. The Museum of Flight
in Seattle, Washington, March Field Air Museum
, Riverside, California, Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, Dayton, Ohio, San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, Space Center Houston
, Houston, Texas, Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium, Tulsa, Oklahoma and U.S. Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama scored poorly on international access. Additionally Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
and the Bush Library at Texas A&M, in College Station, Texas scored very poorly on museum attendance, regional population and was the only facility found to pose a significant risk in transporting an orbiter there. Overall, the California Science Center
scored first and Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
scored last. The 2 most controversial locations which were not awarded an orbiter, Space Center Houston
and National Museum of the U.S. Air Force finished 2nd to last and near the middle of the list respectively.
The Museum of Flight
in Seattle, Washington was not selected to receive a real orbiter but instead will receive the 3 story full-body trainer from the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility at Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. Museum officials, though disappointed that they wouldn't receive a space flown orbiter, pointed to plans to allow the public to go inside the trainer, something not possible with a real orbiter.
tiles to schools and universities for $23.40 USD each (the fee for S&H). About 7000 tiles are available on a first-come, first-served
basis, but limited to one each per institution. For comparison, each orbiter uses over 24 thousand tiles.
(Pratt & Whitney RS-25/26) have been part of the STS program, with three used per orbiter per mission. NASA plans may give the engines away for free when the program ends. However, they may keep all of them, including taking the SSME out of donated orbiters, and replacing them with replicas from spare parts.
extension of Endeavour's arm was left on the International Space Station, for use with the station's robotic arm.
aboard Russian Soyuz spacecraft or possibly a future American commercial spacecraft. In the 1980s and 1990s, a planned successor to STS was the "Shuttle II" and before 2010, Project Constellation. The U.S. Project Constellation
was canceled in October 2010. At one point before retirement, extension of the Space Shuttle program for an additional five years while a replacement can be developed, was considered by the U.S. government.
For comparison to an earlier retirement, when the Saturn IB
was last flown in 1975 for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
, the Shuttle program was already well underway. However, the shuttle was not fully operational until 1982, which left a seven year gap in U.S. manned spaceflight. Because of this and other reasons, the U.S. space station Skylab
burned up in the atmosphere.
began developing a new spacecraft not only to ferry passengers and cargo to the ISS but also to travel beyond Earth orbit to the Moon
and Mars
. Originally called the Crew Exploration Vehicle
, the concept later evolved into the Orion
spacecraft and the project was named Project Constellation. In February 2010, President Barack Obama
's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting the burden for developing a replacement low-orbit service to private corporations. The Constellation program was canceled with the signing of the NASA Authorization Act on October 11, 2010. It marked the end of one plan to fill the void left by the Shuttle's retirement.
envisions the transformation of the Ares I
and Ares V
vehicle designs into a Shuttle-Derived heavy launch vehicle
, the Space Launch System
, both for crew and cargo. It is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of the core elements, without an upper stage, should be for between 70 tons and 100 tons into LEO in preparation for transit for missions beyond low-Earth orbit. With the addition of integrated upper Earth Departure Stage
, the total lift capability of the Space Launch System should be 130 tons or more. On September 14, 2011, NASA
announced that it had selected the design of the new Space Launch System
, declaring that it would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
The Space Launch System will use the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle capsule. It is a design dervied from the Orion spacecraft that was to be used on Constellation Program. A test launch of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle on a Delta IV Heavy rocket is a planned.
(COTS) program in 2006.
Contracts have been closed with SpaceX
and Orbital Sciences Corporation
on December 23, 2008. SpaceX will use its Falcon 9
launch vehicle and Dragon spacecraft. Orbital Sciences will use its Taurus II
launch vehicle and Cygnus spacecraft
.
The Shuttle's potential for space tourism has been studied since the 1970s. An example of this was the Rockwell 74 seat add-on, which filled the payload bay with seats like an airliner. At current prices for a seat to orbit (around $30 million), each 74 passenger shuttle launch could earn well over US$2.2 billion. This is nearly $1 billion in excess of current per launch costs.
development program, funded by the U.S. government, and administered by NASA. The program is intended to stimulate development of privately operated crew
vehicles to low Earth orbit
. In the first phase of the program, NASA provided a total of $50 million during 2010 to five American companies, intended to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. A second set of Commercial Crew Development proposals were solicited by NASA in October 2010. Approximately $200 million of awards are expected by March 2011, for technology development project durations of up to 14 months.
and the USAF tried transferring Space Shuttle technology to other programs:
s, including Heavy Lift Launch Vehicles
, have been proposed. For example, designs for the Ares I
and Ares V
have been integrated into meeting those challenges set forth within the Vision for Space Exploration
; though the Constellation program was discontinued in October 2010.
program represents a next-generation of unmanned
reusable spaceplane
s. The X-37 reuses the basic aerodynamic lifting body
shape of the Space Shuttle Orbiter
. According to Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force (International Affairs) Gary Payton
, the X-37 is a "test" for the next-generation beyond the Space Shuttle, designed to remain in orbit for up to 9 months at a time.
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a manned orbital rocket and spacecraft system operated by NASA on 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. The system combined rocket launch, orbital spacecraft, and re-entry spaceplane with modular add-ons...
fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery
Space Shuttle Discovery
Space Shuttle Discovery is one of the retired orbiters of the Space Shuttle program of NASA, the space agency of the United States, and was operational from its maiden flight, STS-41-D on August 30, 1984, until its final landing during STS-133 on March 9, 2011...
was the first of the three active space shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission
STS-133
STS-133 was the 133rd mission in NASA's Space Shuttle program; during the mission, Space Shuttle Discovery docked with the International Space Station. It was Discoverys 39th and final mission. The mission launched on 24 February 2011, and landed on 9 March 2011...
on March 9, 2011; Space Shuttle Endeavour
Space Shuttle Endeavour
Space Shuttle Endeavour is one of the retired orbiters of the Space Shuttle program of NASA, the space agency of the United States. Endeavour was the fifth and final spaceworthy NASA space shuttle to be built, constructed as a replacement for Challenger...
did so
STS-134
STS-134 was the penultimate mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The mission marked the 25th and final flight of . This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International Space Station. Mark Kelly served as the mission commander...
on June 1. The final shuttle mission
STS-135
STS-135 was the final mission of the American Space Shuttle program. It used the orbiter Atlantis and hardware originally processed for the STS-335 contingency mission, which was not flown. STS-135 launched on 8 July and was originally scheduled to land on 20 July 2011, but the mission was...
was completed with the landing of Atlantis
Space Shuttle Atlantis
The Space Shuttle Atlantis is a retired Space Shuttle orbiter in the Space Shuttle fleet belonging to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States...
on July 21, 2011, bringing about the end of the 30-year Space Shuttle program
Space Shuttle program
NASA's Space Shuttle program, officially called Space Transportation System , was the United States government's manned launch vehicle program from 1981 to 2011...
.
The Shuttle was originally targeted for retirement in 2010 (Atlantis was to be retired first after STS-132
STS-132
STS-132 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Atlantis docked with the International Space Station on 16 May 2010. STS-132 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 14 May 2010. The primary payload was the Russian Rassvet Mini-Research Module, along with an Integrated...
in May of that year), but the program was extended when the two final planned missions were delayed until 2011. Later, one additional mission was added for Atlantis for July 2011, extending the program further. Counter-proposals to the shuttle's retirement were considered by Congress and the prime contractor United Space Alliance
United Space Alliance
United Space Alliance is a spaceflight operations company. USA is a joint venture which was established in August 1995 as a Limited Liability Company , equally owned by Boeing and Lockheed Martin. The company is headquartered in Houston, Texas and, employed approximately 8,800 people in Texas,...
as late as spring 2010.
Hardware developed for the Space Shuttle met various ends with conclusion of the program, including donation, disuse and/or disposal, or reuse. An example of reuse, is that one of the three Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
Multi-Purpose Logistics Module
A Multi-Purpose Logistics Module is a large pressurized container used on Space Shuttle missions to transfer cargo to and from the International Space Station . An MPLM was carried in the cargo bay of a Shuttle and berthed to the Unity or Harmony modules on the ISS. From there, supplies were...
(MPLM) was converted to a permanent module for the International Space Station
International Space Station
The International Space Station is a habitable, artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The ISS follows the Salyut, Almaz, Cosmos, Skylab, and Mir space stations, as the 11th space station launched, not including the Genesis I and II prototypes...
.
Fate of surviving STS program hardware
Orbiters
| Shuttle Name |
Shuttle Designation |
Retirement Destination | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Enterprise* | OV-101 | Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum The Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum is a military and maritime history museum with a collection of museum ships in New York City. It is located at Pier 86 at 46th Street on the West Side of Manhattan. The museum showcases the World War II aircraft carrier USS Intrepid, the submarine , a Concorde... , New York City, New York |
|
| Discovery | OV-103 | Udvar-Hazy Center, Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum National Air and Space Museum The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution holds the largest collection of historic aircraft and spacecraft in the world. It was established in 1976. Located in Washington, D.C., United States, it is a center for research into the history and science of aviation and... , Chantilly, Virginia Chantilly, Virginia Chantilly is an unincorporated community located in western Fairfax County and southeastern Loudoun County of Northern Virginia. Recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau as a census designated place , the community population was 23,039 as of the 2010 census -- down from 41,041 in 2000, due to the... |
|
| Atlantis | OV-104 | Kennedy Space Center Kennedy Space Center The John F. Kennedy Space Center is the NASA installation that has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on hiatus, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program... , Merritt Island, Florida |
|
| Endeavour | OV-105 | California Science Center California Science Center The California Science Center is a state agency and museum located in Exposition Park, Los Angeles. Billed as the West Coast's largest hands-on science center, the California ScienCenter is a public-private partnership between the State and the California Science Center Foundation... , Los Angeles, California. |
National Air and Space Museum
The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution holds the largest collection of historic aircraft and spacecraft in the world. It was established in 1976. Located in Washington, D.C., United States, it is a center for research into the history and science of aviation and...
, Chantilly, Virginia
Chantilly, Virginia
Chantilly is an unincorporated community located in western Fairfax County and southeastern Loudoun County of Northern Virginia. Recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau as a census designated place , the community population was 23,039 as of the 2010 census -- down from 41,041 in 2000, due to the...
, where Discovery will take its place.
On April 12, 2011, NASA announced a selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters:
Museums and facilities not selected to receive an orbiter were disappointed. Elected officials representing Houston, Texas, location of the Johnson Space Center; and Dayton, Ohio, location of National Museum of the United States Air Force
National Museum of the United States Air Force
The National Museum of the United States Air Force is the official museum of the United States Air Force located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base northeast of Dayton, Ohio. The NMUSAF is the world's largest and oldest military aviation museum with more than 360 aircraft and missiles on display...
called for Congressional investigations into the selection process, though no such action has been taken to date. Local and Congressional politicians in Texas questioned if partisan politics played any role in the selection. Chicago media questioned the decision not to include the Adler Planetarium
Adler Planetarium
The Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum in Chicago, Illinois was the first planetarium built in the Western Hemisphere and is the oldest in existence today. Adler was founded and built in 1930 by the philanthropist Max Adler, with the assistance of the first director of the planetarium, Philip Fox...
in the list of facilities receiving orbiters, pointing to Chicago's 3rd-largest population in the United States. The chair of the NASA committee that made the selections pointed to the guidance from Congress that the orbiters go to facilities where the most people could see them, and the ties to the space program that Southern California (home to Edwards Air Force Base
Edwards Air Force Base
Edwards Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located on the border of Kern County, Los Angeles County, and San Bernardino County, California, in the Antelope Valley. It is southwest of the central business district of North Edwards, California and due east of Rosamond.It is named in...
, where nearly half of shuttle flights have ended and home to the plants which manufactured the orbiters and the Space Shuttle Main Engine
Space Shuttle main engine
The RS-25, otherwise known as the Space Shuttle Main Engine , is a reusable liquid-fuel rocket engine built by Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne for the Space Shuttle, running on liquid hydrogen and oxygen. Each Space Shuttle was propelled by three SSMEs mated to one powerhead...
s), the Smithsonian (curator of the nation's air and space artifacts), the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex is the visitor center at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. It features exhibits and displays, historic spacecraft and memorabilia, shows, two IMAX theaters, a range of bus tours of the spaceport, and the Shuttle Launch Experience, a simulated ride into...
(where all shuttle launches have originated from and a large tourist draw) and the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum
Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum
The Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum is a military and maritime history museum with a collection of museum ships in New York City. It is located at Pier 86 at 46th Street on the West Side of Manhattan. The museum showcases the World War II aircraft carrier USS Intrepid, the submarine , a Concorde...
(which served as the recovery ship for Project Mercury
Project Mercury
In January 1960 NASA awarded Western Electric Company a contract for the Mercury tracking network. The value of the contract was over $33 million. Also in January, McDonnell delivered the first production-type Mercury spacecraft, less than a year after award of the formal contract. On February 12,...
and Project Gemini
Project Gemini
Project Gemini was the second human spaceflight program of NASA, the civilian space agency of the United States government. Project Gemini was conducted between projects Mercury and Apollo, with ten manned flights occurring in 1965 and 1966....
) possess.
The NASA Inspector General released a report on an audit of the selection process for the orbit display locations in August 2011. The report highlighted issues which led to the final decision. The Museum of Flight
Museum of Flight
The Museum of Flight is a private non-profit air and space museum at King County International Airport , south of downtown Seattle, Washington. It was established in 1965 and is fully accredited by the American Association of Museums...
in Seattle, Washington, March Field Air Museum
March Field Air Museum
The March Field Air Museum is an aviation museum near Moreno Valley and Riverside, California, adjacent to March Air Reserve Base.-Origins:The museum was founded in 1979 as March Air Force Base Museum. Originally operated by the Air Force, the museum's operation was transferred to a nonprofit...
, Riverside, California, Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, Dayton, Ohio, San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, Space Center Houston
Space Center Houston
Space Center Houston is the official visitors' center of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center—the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's center for human spaceflight activities—located in Houston...
, Houston, Texas, Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium, Tulsa, Oklahoma and U.S. Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama scored poorly on international access. Additionally Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
The Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History is a located in the Brazos Center in Bryan, Texas.The focus of the Museum is science and natural and cultural history...
and the Bush Library at Texas A&M, in College Station, Texas scored very poorly on museum attendance, regional population and was the only facility found to pose a significant risk in transporting an orbiter there. Overall, the California Science Center
California Science Center
The California Science Center is a state agency and museum located in Exposition Park, Los Angeles. Billed as the West Coast's largest hands-on science center, the California ScienCenter is a public-private partnership between the State and the California Science Center Foundation...
scored first and Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History
The Brazos Valley Museum of Natural History is a located in the Brazos Center in Bryan, Texas.The focus of the Museum is science and natural and cultural history...
scored last. The 2 most controversial locations which were not awarded an orbiter, Space Center Houston
Space Center Houston
Space Center Houston is the official visitors' center of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center—the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's center for human spaceflight activities—located in Houston...
and National Museum of the U.S. Air Force finished 2nd to last and near the middle of the list respectively.
The Museum of Flight
Museum of Flight
The Museum of Flight is a private non-profit air and space museum at King County International Airport , south of downtown Seattle, Washington. It was established in 1965 and is fully accredited by the American Association of Museums...
in Seattle, Washington was not selected to receive a real orbiter but instead will receive the 3 story full-body trainer from the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility at Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. Museum officials, though disappointed that they wouldn't receive a space flown orbiter, pointed to plans to allow the public to go inside the trainer, something not possible with a real orbiter.
Payload hardware
- SpacelabSpacelabSpacelab was a reusable laboratory used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory consisted of multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay...
Pallet Elvis – handed over to the Swiss Museum of Transport, Switzerland, in March 2010. - One of the two Spacelabs—on display at Bremen AirportBremen AirportBremen Airport or Flughafen Bremen serves the German city of Bremen and is located south of the city. There were 2.4 million passengers in 2008.-History:The beginnings of the airport date back to the early 20th century...
, Germany. - MPLM Leonardo – converted to the ISS Permanent Multipurpose Module.
Tiles
NASA ran a program to donate thermal protection systemSpace Shuttle thermal protection system
The Space Shuttle thermal protection system is the barrier that protects the Space Shuttle Orbiter during the searing heat of atmospheric reentry...
tiles to schools and universities for $23.40 USD each (the fee for S&H). About 7000 tiles are available on a first-come, first-served
First-come, first-served
First-come, first-served – sometimes first-in, first-served and first-come, first choice – is a service policy whereby the requests of customers or clients are attended to in the order that they arrived, without other biases or preferences. The policy can be employed when processing sales orders,...
basis, but limited to one each per institution. For comparison, each orbiter uses over 24 thousand tiles.
SSME
A total of about 42 reusable SSMEsSpace Shuttle main engine
The RS-25, otherwise known as the Space Shuttle Main Engine , is a reusable liquid-fuel rocket engine built by Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne for the Space Shuttle, running on liquid hydrogen and oxygen. Each Space Shuttle was propelled by three SSMEs mated to one powerhead...
(Pratt & Whitney RS-25/26) have been part of the STS program, with three used per orbiter per mission. NASA plans may give the engines away for free when the program ends. However, they may keep all of them, including taking the SSME out of donated orbiters, and replacing them with replicas from spare parts.
SSME nozzles
Worn out engine nozzles are typically considered scrap, although nine nozzles may be refurbished for display on the donated orbiters, so the actual engines can be retained by NASA.Canadarm (SRMS) & OBSS
Three shuttle arms were used by NASA; the arms of both Discovery and Atlantis will be left in place for their museum display. Endeavours arm is to be removed from the orbiter for separate display in Canada. The OBSSOrbiter Boom Sensor System
The Orbiter Boom Sensor System is a 50-foot boom carried on board NASA's Space Shuttles. The boom can be grappled by the Canadarm and serves as an extension of the arm, doubling its length to a combined total of 100 feet...
extension of Endeavour's arm was left on the International Space Station, for use with the station's robotic arm.
Information technology
In December 2010, as NASA prepared for the STS program ending, an audit by the NASA Office of Inspector General (OIG) found that information technology had been sold or prepared for sale that still contained sensitive information. NASA OIG recommended NASA be more careful in the future.Space Shuttle successors and legacy
Until another US launch vehicle is ready, crews will travel to and from the International Space StationInternational Space Station
The International Space Station is a habitable, artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The ISS follows the Salyut, Almaz, Cosmos, Skylab, and Mir space stations, as the 11th space station launched, not including the Genesis I and II prototypes...
aboard Russian Soyuz spacecraft or possibly a future American commercial spacecraft. In the 1980s and 1990s, a planned successor to STS was the "Shuttle II" and before 2010, Project Constellation. The U.S. Project Constellation
Project Constellation
Constellation Program is a human spaceflight program within NASA, the space agency of the United States. The stated goals of the program were to gain significant experience in operating away from Earth's environment, develop technologies needed for opening the space frontier, and conduct...
was canceled in October 2010. At one point before retirement, extension of the Space Shuttle program for an additional five years while a replacement can be developed, was considered by the U.S. government.
For comparison to an earlier retirement, when the Saturn IB
Saturn IB
The Saturn IB was an American launch vehicle commissioned by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for use in the Apollo program...
was last flown in 1975 for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
-Backup crew:-Crew notes:Jack Swigert had originally been assigned as the command module pilot for the ASTP prime crew, but prior to the official announcement he was removed as punishment for his involvement in the Apollo 15 postage stamp scandal.-Soyuz crew:...
, the Shuttle program was already well underway. However, the shuttle was not fully operational until 1982, which left a seven year gap in U.S. manned spaceflight. Because of this and other reasons, the U.S. space station Skylab
Skylab
Skylab was a space station launched and operated by NASA, the space agency of the United States. Skylab orbited the Earth from 1973 to 1979, and included a workshop, a solar observatory, and other systems. It was launched unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a mass of...
burned up in the atmosphere.
Constellation Program
In the mid-2000s NASANASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
began developing a new spacecraft not only to ferry passengers and cargo to the ISS but also to travel beyond Earth orbit to the Moon
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only known natural satellite,There are a number of near-Earth asteroids including 3753 Cruithne that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term . These are quasi-satellites and not true moons. For more...
and Mars
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance...
. Originally called the Crew Exploration Vehicle
Crew Exploration Vehicle
The Crew Exploration Vehicle was the conceptual component of the U.S. NASA Vision for Space Exploration that later became known as the Orion spacecraft...
, the concept later evolved into the Orion
Orion (spacecraft)
Orion is a spacecraft designed by Lockheed Martin for NASA, the space agency of the United States. Orion development began in 2005 as part of the Constellation program, where Orion would fulfill the function of a Crew Exploration Vehicle....
spacecraft and the project was named Project Constellation. In February 2010, President Barack Obama
Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States Senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.Born in...
's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting the burden for developing a replacement low-orbit service to private corporations. The Constellation program was canceled with the signing of the NASA Authorization Act on October 11, 2010. It marked the end of one plan to fill the void left by the Shuttle's retirement.
Space Launch System
The NASA Authorization Act of 2010NASA Authorization Act of 2010
The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 is a U.S. law which authorizes NASA appropriations for fiscal years 2011–2013 with the same top-line budget values as requested by President of the United States Barack Obama...
envisions the transformation of the Ares I
Ares I
Ares I was the crew launch vehicle that was being developed by NASA as part of the Constellation Program. The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity Ares, who is identified with the Roman god Mars...
and Ares V
Ares V
The Ares V was the planned cargo launch component of the Constellation program, which was to have replaced the Space Shuttle after its retirement in 2011. Ares V was also planned to carry supplies for a human presence on Mars...
vehicle designs into a Shuttle-Derived heavy launch vehicle
Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle
Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle , is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space launch vehicles from the components, technology and/or infrastructure of the Space Shuttle program. SDVs have also been part of...
, the Space Launch System
Space Launch System
The Space Launch System, or SLS, is a Space Shuttle-derived heavy launch vehicle being designed by NASA, following the cancellation of the Constellation Program, to replace the retired Space Shuttle. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 envisions the transformation of the Ares I and Ares V vehicle...
, both for crew and cargo. It is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of the core elements, without an upper stage, should be for between 70 tons and 100 tons into LEO in preparation for transit for missions beyond low-Earth orbit. With the addition of integrated upper Earth Departure Stage
Earth Departure Stage
The Ares V Earth Departure Stage was a rocket stage which NASA planned to design at its Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama as part of Project Constellation...
, the total lift capability of the Space Launch System should be 130 tons or more. On September 14, 2011, NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
announced that it had selected the design of the new Space Launch System
Space Launch System
The Space Launch System, or SLS, is a Space Shuttle-derived heavy launch vehicle being designed by NASA, following the cancellation of the Constellation Program, to replace the retired Space Shuttle. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 envisions the transformation of the Ares I and Ares V vehicle...
, declaring that it would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
The Space Launch System will use the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle capsule. It is a design dervied from the Orion spacecraft that was to be used on Constellation Program. A test launch of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle on a Delta IV Heavy rocket is a planned.
COTS
NASA announced the awarding of contracts for the cargo resupply of the International Space Station (ISS) in the form of the new Commercial Orbital Transportation ServicesCommercial Orbital Transportation Services
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services is a NASA program to coordinate the delivery of crew and cargo to the International Space Station by private companies. The program was announced on January 18, 2006...
(COTS) program in 2006.
Contracts have been closed with SpaceX
SpaceX
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, or more popularly and informally known as SpaceX, is an American space transport company that operates out of Hawthorne, California...
and Orbital Sciences Corporation
Orbital Sciences Corporation
Orbital Sciences Corporation is an American company which specializes in the manufacturing and launch of satellites. Its Launch Systems Group is heavily involved with missile defense launch systems...
on December 23, 2008. SpaceX will use its Falcon 9
Falcon 9
Falcon 9 is a rocket-powered spaceflight launch system designed and manufactured by SpaceX. Both stages of its two-stage-to-orbit vehicle use liquid oxygen and rocket-grade kerosene propellants...
launch vehicle and Dragon spacecraft. Orbital Sciences will use its Taurus II
Taurus II
Taurus II is an expendable launch system being developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation. It is a two stage vehicle designed to launch payloads weighing up to into low-Earth orbit...
launch vehicle and Cygnus spacecraft
Cygnus spacecraft
The Cygnus spacecraft is an unmanned resupply spacecraft being developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and Thales Alenia Space as part of NASA's COTS project. It is designed to transport supplies to the International Space Station after the retirement of the Space Shuttle...
.
CSTS
Another proposal is the Commercial Space Transportation Service (CSTS), which involves commercial operation of the Space Shuttle. Under the proposal, two orbiters would continue to be flown until 2017, or when a replacement is available, for about $1.5 billion per year. The plan would mean restarting production of external tanks, but would save having to develop a new spacecraft and launch system.The Shuttle's potential for space tourism has been studied since the 1970s. An example of this was the Rockwell 74 seat add-on, which filled the payload bay with seats like an airliner. At current prices for a seat to orbit (around $30 million), each 74 passenger shuttle launch could earn well over US$2.2 billion. This is nearly $1 billion in excess of current per launch costs.
CCDev
Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) is a multiphase space technologySpace technology
Space technology is technology that is related to entering, and retrieving objects or life forms from space."Every day" technologies such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, GPS systems, satellite television, and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure...
development program, funded by the U.S. government, and administered by NASA. The program is intended to stimulate development of privately operated crew
Human spaceflight
Human spaceflight is spaceflight with humans on the spacecraft. When a spacecraft is manned, it can be piloted directly, as opposed to machine or robotic space probes and remotely-controlled satellites....
vehicles to low Earth orbit
Low Earth orbit
A low Earth orbit is generally defined as an orbit within the locus extending from the Earth’s surface up to an altitude of 2,000 km...
. In the first phase of the program, NASA provided a total of $50 million during 2010 to five American companies, intended to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. A second set of Commercial Crew Development proposals were solicited by NASA in October 2010. Approximately $200 million of awards are expected by March 2011, for technology development project durations of up to 14 months.
Technology transfer attempts
NASANASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
and the USAF tried transferring Space Shuttle technology to other programs:
Launch vehicles
Shuttle-Derived Launch VehicleShuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle
Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle , is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space launch vehicles from the components, technology and/or infrastructure of the Space Shuttle program. SDVs have also been part of...
s, including Heavy Lift Launch Vehicles
Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle
The Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle, also known as the High Confidence Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle is an alternate launch vehicle proposal for the NASA Constellation program...
, have been proposed. For example, designs for the Ares I
Ares I
Ares I was the crew launch vehicle that was being developed by NASA as part of the Constellation Program. The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity Ares, who is identified with the Roman god Mars...
and Ares V
Ares V
The Ares V was the planned cargo launch component of the Constellation program, which was to have replaced the Space Shuttle after its retirement in 2011. Ares V was also planned to carry supplies for a human presence on Mars...
have been integrated into meeting those challenges set forth within the Vision for Space Exploration
Vision for Space Exploration
The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy which was announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. It is seen as a response to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, the state of human spaceflight at NASA, and a way to regain public enthusiasm for space...
; though the Constellation program was discontinued in October 2010.
Next-generation orbiters
The USAF's Boeing X-37Boeing X-37
The Boeing X-37 is an American unmanned vertical-takeoff, horizontal-landing spaceplane. The X-37 is operated by the United States Air Force for orbital spaceflight missions intended to demonstrate reusable space technologies...
program represents a next-generation of unmanned
Unmanned aerial vehicle
An unmanned aerial vehicle , also known as a unmanned aircraft system , remotely piloted aircraft or unmanned aircraft, is a machine which functions either by the remote control of a navigator or pilot or autonomously, that is, as a self-directing entity...
reusable spaceplane
Spaceplane
A spaceplane is a vehicle that operates as an aircraft in Earth's atmosphere, as well as a spacecraft when it is in space. It combines features of an aircraft and a spacecraft, which can be thought of as an aircraft that can endure and maneuver in the vacuum of space or likewise a spacecraft that...
s. The X-37 reuses the basic aerodynamic lifting body
Lifting body
A lifting body is a fixed-wing aircraft configuration in which the body itself produces lift. In contrast to a flying wing, which is a wing with minimal or no conventional fuselage, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing...
shape of the Space Shuttle Orbiter
Space Shuttle Orbiter
The Space Shuttle orbiter was the orbital spacecraft of the Space Shuttle program operated by NASA, the space agency of the United States. The orbiter was a reusable winged "space-plane", a mixture of rockets, spacecraft, and aircraft...
. According to Deputy Under Secretary of the Air Force (International Affairs) Gary Payton
Gary Payton (astronaut)
Colonel Gary Eugene Payton, USAF, is a former American astronaut.-Education:Payton graduated from high school in Rock Island, Illinois, in 1966. He went on to attended Bradley University, in Peoria, Illinois...
, the X-37 is a "test" for the next-generation beyond the Space Shuttle, designed to remain in orbit for up to 9 months at a time.