Strawberry Poison-dart Frog
Encyclopedia
The strawberry poison frog or strawberry poison-dart frog (Oophaga pumilio) is a species of small amphibian poison dart frog
found in Central America
. It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua
through Costa Rica
and northwestern Panama
. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations. The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs
, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding. O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus
.
s, are harmless when not fed ants or beetles, resulting in pumilio becoming a rather popular exotic pet
.
, and can often be found in leaf litter in both forested and disturbed areas. Though brightly colored and toxic, these frogs are relatively small, growing to approximately 17.5–22 mm in standard length. Males are extremely territorial, guarding small territories.
world for exhibiting a high degree of parental care. The strawberry poison frog has dual parental care. The males defend and water the nests, and the females feed the oophagous tadpoles their unfertilized eggs. Although both sexes contribute to parental care, females invest more heavily in terms of energy expenditure, time investment, and loss of potential reproduction. Females provide energetically costly eggs to the tadpoles for 6–8 weeks (until metamorphosis), remain sexually inactive during tadpole rearing, and care for only one clutch of 4–6 tadpoles at a time. The males, on the other hand, contribute the relatively "cheap" (in terms of energy) act of watering and protecting the eggs for a relatively short period (10–12 days), , and can care for multiple nests at one time. The extreme maternal investment in their offspring is believed to be the result of high egg mortality. Only 5–12% of the clutch develops into tadpoles, and so the female's fitness may be best increased by making sure that those few eggs that form tadpoles survive.
Unlike many frog species, amplexus
is absent in O. pumilio, with mating individuals instead exhibiting a distinct vent-to-vent position in which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them. After mating, the female will lay an average of three to five eggs on a leaf or bromeliad axil. The male will then ensure that the eggs are kept hydrated by transporting water in his cloaca
. After about ten days, the eggs hatch and the female transports the tadpoles on her back to some water-filled location. In captivity, on rare occasions the male is observed transporting the tadpoles, though whether this is intentional, or the tadpoles simply hitch a ride, is unknown. Bromeliad axils are frequently used tadpole deposition sites, but anything suitable can be used, such as knots in trees, small puddles, or human trash such as aluminum cans.
Tadpoles are deposited singly at each location. Once this has been done, the female will come to each tadpole every few days and deposit several unfertilized food eggs (Savage, 2002). In captivity, tadpoles have been raised on a variety of diets, ranging from algae to the eggs of other dart frogs, but with minimal success. O. pumilio tadpoles are considered obligate egg feeders, as they are unable to accept any other form of nutrition.
After about a month, the tadpole will metamorphose into a small froglet. Generally, they stay near their water source for a few days for protection as they absorb the rest of their tail.
, although the name Dendrobates pumilio is still most commonly used. There is evidence that the species of the Oophaga genus (previously classified as the "female parental care group" of Dendrobates) are a monophyletic evolutionary group. Due to the low level of genetic divergence between the species analyzed in this genus, it is estimated that they speciated relatively recently, after the formation of the current Panamanian land bridge in the Pliocene
(3–5 million years ago). Oophaga pumilio is believed to be most closely related to Oophaga arborea.
Recently, O. pumilio has been exported from Central America again in small numbers from frog farms. Because of this, pumilio have seen a huge increase in numbers in the dart frog community and is regularly available.
The blue jeans morph of O. pumilio is most common throughout the species range, but is relatively rare in the United States pet trade. Most of these animals came from the original imports during the 1990s, or are descendant from these animals. This morph can be found throughout Costa Rica
, as well as mainland Panama
.
Bastimentos
The Bastimentos color morph of Dendrobates pumilio or "Bastis" typically comes in three morphs, being either red, yellow, or white, with black spots on the back and legs. They are all found together on Isla Bastimentos in Panama, and have been reported to be true breeding to a certain degree, despite the ease of mixing with other varieties. Bastimentos' have recently been arriving in the United States
as imports from frog farms.
Chiriqui Grande/Chiriqui River
The rare Chiriqui morph is another frog that has seen recent importation to the United States. This frog is typically green in coloration, with some exhibiting a red coloration. Sometimes, these frogs have blue-green legs and yellow bellies. The Chiriqui River/Grande frogs closely resemble the Cayo de Aqua and Pope Island morphs, but are reported to be collected near either Chiriqui River or Chiriqui Grande. At this time, it is difficult to determine which name is more correct since locality data is unavailable, and they are sometimes incorrectly referred to only as 'Chiriqui'.
Man Creeks
Man Creek pumilio is another frog that has seen recent importation into pet stores. They look very similar to the blue jeans morph and are often confused. Both frogs are usually red with blue legs. However, Man Creeks typically have gray legs and arms, and it is not uncommon for them to lack gray entirely on the front limbs. Some Man Creeks do exhibit bluish arms and legs, however, they're typically easy to distinguish by a trained eye.
Man Creeks are often referred to as "Almirante," as they closely resemble the Almirante
morph. However, some reports place their collection locale closer to the Man Creek area, and this name is considered more correct at this time. Unfortunately, due to the methods of collection by the frog farms, locality data is missing on this morph, resulting in a great deal of confusion and frustration within the hobby world.
Poison dart frog
Poison dart frog is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to Central and South America. These species are diurnal and often have brightly-colored bodies...
found in Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
. It is common throughout its range, which extends from eastern central Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
through Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
and northwestern Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
. The species is often found in humid lowlands and premontane forest, but large populations are also found in disturbed areas such as plantations. The strawberry poison frog is perhaps most famous for its widespread variation in coloration, comprising approximately 15–30 color morphs
Polymorphism (biology)
Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
, most of which are presumed to be true-breeding. O. pumilio, while not the most poisonous of the dendrobatids, is the most toxic member of its genus
Oophaga
Oophaga is a genus of poison-dart frogs containing nine species. Many of these species were formerly in the Dendrobates genus. The frogs are distributed in Central and South America, from Nicaragua through the Colombian El Choco to northern Ecuador .-Etymology:Oophaga, Greek for "egg eater" , is...
.
Diet
O. pumilio has a specialized diet of small arthropods, primarily formicine ants and bugs. The frogs, like most Poison dart frogPoison dart frog
Poison dart frog is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to Central and South America. These species are diurnal and often have brightly-colored bodies...
s, are harmless when not fed ants or beetles, resulting in pumilio becoming a rather popular exotic pet
Pet
A pet is a household animal kept for companionship and a person's enjoyment, as opposed to wild animals or to livestock, laboratory animals, working animals or sport animals, which are kept for economic or productive reasons. The most popular pets are noted for their loyal or playful...
.
Behavior
Oophaga pumilio is diurnal and primarily terrestrialTerrestrial animal
Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land , as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water , or amphibians, which rely on a combination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats...
, and can often be found in leaf litter in both forested and disturbed areas. Though brightly colored and toxic, these frogs are relatively small, growing to approximately 17.5–22 mm in standard length. Males are extremely territorial, guarding small territories.
Reproduction and parental care
Oophaga pumiliois an external breeder, and other species of the genus Oophaga are notable in the amphibianAmphibian
Amphibians , are a class of vertebrate animals including animals such as toads, frogs, caecilians, and salamanders. They are characterized as non-amniote ectothermic tetrapods...
world for exhibiting a high degree of parental care. The strawberry poison frog has dual parental care. The males defend and water the nests, and the females feed the oophagous tadpoles their unfertilized eggs. Although both sexes contribute to parental care, females invest more heavily in terms of energy expenditure, time investment, and loss of potential reproduction. Females provide energetically costly eggs to the tadpoles for 6–8 weeks (until metamorphosis), remain sexually inactive during tadpole rearing, and care for only one clutch of 4–6 tadpoles at a time. The males, on the other hand, contribute the relatively "cheap" (in terms of energy) act of watering and protecting the eggs for a relatively short period (10–12 days), , and can care for multiple nests at one time. The extreme maternal investment in their offspring is believed to be the result of high egg mortality. Only 5–12% of the clutch develops into tadpoles, and so the female's fitness may be best increased by making sure that those few eggs that form tadpoles survive.
Unlike many frog species, amplexus
Amplexus
Amplexus is a form of pseudocopulation in which a male amphibian grasps a female with his front legs as part of the mating process...
is absent in O. pumilio, with mating individuals instead exhibiting a distinct vent-to-vent position in which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them. After mating, the female will lay an average of three to five eggs on a leaf or bromeliad axil. The male will then ensure that the eggs are kept hydrated by transporting water in his cloaca
Cloaca
In zoological anatomy, a cloaca is the posterior opening that serves as the only such opening for the intestinal, reproductive, and urinary tracts of certain animal species...
. After about ten days, the eggs hatch and the female transports the tadpoles on her back to some water-filled location. In captivity, on rare occasions the male is observed transporting the tadpoles, though whether this is intentional, or the tadpoles simply hitch a ride, is unknown. Bromeliad axils are frequently used tadpole deposition sites, but anything suitable can be used, such as knots in trees, small puddles, or human trash such as aluminum cans.
Tadpoles are deposited singly at each location. Once this has been done, the female will come to each tadpole every few days and deposit several unfertilized food eggs (Savage, 2002). In captivity, tadpoles have been raised on a variety of diets, ranging from algae to the eggs of other dart frogs, but with minimal success. O. pumilio tadpoles are considered obligate egg feeders, as they are unable to accept any other form of nutrition.
After about a month, the tadpole will metamorphose into a small froglet. Generally, they stay near their water source for a few days for protection as they absorb the rest of their tail.
Taxonomy
Oophaga pumilio belongs to the genus OophagaOophaga
Oophaga is a genus of poison-dart frogs containing nine species. Many of these species were formerly in the Dendrobates genus. The frogs are distributed in Central and South America, from Nicaragua through the Colombian El Choco to northern Ecuador .-Etymology:Oophaga, Greek for "egg eater" , is...
, although the name Dendrobates pumilio is still most commonly used. There is evidence that the species of the Oophaga genus (previously classified as the "female parental care group" of Dendrobates) are a monophyletic evolutionary group. Due to the low level of genetic divergence between the species analyzed in this genus, it is estimated that they speciated relatively recently, after the formation of the current Panamanian land bridge in the Pliocene
Pliocene
The Pliocene Epoch is the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.332 million to 2.588 million years before present. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch...
(3–5 million years ago). Oophaga pumilio is believed to be most closely related to Oophaga arborea.
Captivity
Oophaga pumilio is a popular frog in captivity, due to its striking colors and unique life cycle. They have been imported in vast quantities to the United States and Europe since the early 1990s, when they would typically be available for around US$30 each. However, these shipments have since stopped, and O. pumilio is much less common and available in reduced diversity. In Europe, O. pumilio is much more diverse and available due to an increased frequency of smuggling and the resulting offspring of smuggled animals. Smuggling of dart frogs is less common elsewhere, but still problematic as it kills large numbers of animals and frequently degrades or destroys viable habitat.Recently, O. pumilio has been exported from Central America again in small numbers from frog farms. Because of this, pumilio have seen a huge increase in numbers in the dart frog community and is regularly available.
Common color morphs in captivity
Blue jeansThe blue jeans morph of O. pumilio is most common throughout the species range, but is relatively rare in the United States pet trade. Most of these animals came from the original imports during the 1990s, or are descendant from these animals. This morph can be found throughout Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
, as well as mainland Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
.
Bastimentos
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as imports from frog farms.
Chiriqui Grande/Chiriqui River
The rare Chiriqui morph is another frog that has seen recent importation to the United States. This frog is typically green in coloration, with some exhibiting a red coloration. Sometimes, these frogs have blue-green legs and yellow bellies. The Chiriqui River/Grande frogs closely resemble the Cayo de Aqua and Pope Island morphs, but are reported to be collected near either Chiriqui River or Chiriqui Grande. At this time, it is difficult to determine which name is more correct since locality data is unavailable, and they are sometimes incorrectly referred to only as 'Chiriqui'.
Man Creeks
Man Creek pumilio is another frog that has seen recent importation into pet stores. They look very similar to the blue jeans morph and are often confused. Both frogs are usually red with blue legs. However, Man Creeks typically have gray legs and arms, and it is not uncommon for them to lack gray entirely on the front limbs. Some Man Creeks do exhibit bluish arms and legs, however, they're typically easy to distinguish by a trained eye.
Man Creeks are often referred to as "Almirante," as they closely resemble the Almirante
Almirante
Almirante is a city in the Bocas del Toro Province of the Republic of Panama. Its name is Spanish for Admiral.-Tourist Use:For travelers, Almirante is mainly used as a jumping off point for land travel to other cities on the mainland, Panama or to Costa Rica. An approximately 30-minute water taxi...
morph. However, some reports place their collection locale closer to the Man Creek area, and this name is considered more correct at this time. Unfortunately, due to the methods of collection by the frog farms, locality data is missing on this morph, resulting in a great deal of confusion and frustration within the hobby world.
External links
- Amphibiaweb, Amphibiaweb entry for Oophaga pumilio
- Dart Den, Poison dart frog resource and forums.
- Frognet, Dart frog resources for hobbyists, in operation since 1996.
- Dendrobates.org, Information site for poison frogs
Media
- Dendrobatesworld, Photo and infosite about poisonfrogs.
- Oophaga pumilio at CalPhotos
- Pumilio.com Gallery