Strela 2
Encyclopedia
The 9K32 “Strela-2” is a man-portable, shoulder-fired, low-altitude surface-to-air missile
system with a high explosive warhead
and passive infrared homing
guidance. Broadly comparable to the US Army
FIM-43 Redeye
, it was the first generation of Soviet
man-portable SAMs, entering service in 1968, with series production starting in 1970.
Described by one expert as being "the premier Russian export line", the Strela and its variants have seen widespread use in nearly every regional conflict since 1968.
This direction was soon to change, however, with the beginning of the Korean War
. An entirely conventional conflict, it proved that nuclear weapons were not the be-all and end-all of warfare. In the face of a powerful and modern American air force, carrying non-nuclear payloads, the Soviet Union invested heavily in a multi-tier air defense system, consisting of several new mobile SAMs, to cover all altitude ranges and protect ground forces. The new doctrine listed five requirements:
Both Strela-1 and Strela-2 were initially intended to be man-portable systems. However, as the Strela-2 proved to be a considerably smaller and lighter package, the role of the Strela-1 was changed, becoming a heavier, vehicle-mounted system with increased range and performance, to better support the ZSU-23-4
in the regimental air defense role.
As development began in the Turopov OKB
(later changed to Kolomna), detailed information on the design of the US FIM-43 Redeye
became available. While it was by no means a simple reverse-engineered copy, in many ways the Strela design borrowed heavily from the Redeye, which had started development a few years earlier. Due to the comparatively primitive Soviet technical base, development was protracted, and many problems arose, especially in designing a sufficiently small seeker head and rocket. Eventually the designers settled for a simpler seeker head than that of the Redeye, allowing the initial version, the 9K32 “Strela-2” (US DoD
designation SA-7A, missile round 9M32) to finally enter service in 1968, five years behind schedule.
behind the actual engine, which the missile therefore usually hit - but there its small warhead often failed to cause significant damage to the engine itself.
In order to address the shortcomings, two improved versions were ordered already in 1968; as an intermediate stop-gap the slightly improved 9K32M “Strela-2M” (NATO reporting name SA-7b) to replace the original, as well as the more ambitious Strela-3
.
As the modifications introduced with the Strela-2M were relatively minor, the process was fast and it was accepted in service already in 1970. The Strela-2M replaced Strela-2 in production lines immediately. Improvements were made particularly to increase the engagement envelope of the new system:
Contrary to what was at first reported in some Western publications, more recent information indicates that while lethality on impact had proven to be a problem, the warhead remained the same 1.17 kg unit (including 370 gram TNT charge) as in the original. This in fact remained the warhead of all Soviet MANPADS up to and including most Igla variants; to address the problem of poor lethality, a more powerful HE filling than TNT, improved fuzing, a terminal maneuver, and finally a separate charge to set off any remaining rocket fuel were gradually introduced in later MANPADS systems, but the original Strela-2/2M warhead design of 370g directed-energy HE charge in a pre-fragmented casing remained.
The seeker head improvements were only minor changes to allow better discrimination of the target signal against background emissions. Some sources claim that the seeker sensitivity was also improved. The only defence against infra-red countermeasures remained the seeker head's narrow field of view
, which could be hoped to help the rapidly slowing flare fall off the missile field of view as it was tracking a fast-moving target. In practice, flares proved to be highly effective countermeasure against both versions of the Strela-2.
The seeker is commonly referred to as a hot metal tracker. The seeker can only see infrared energy in the near infrared (NIR) spectrum, emitted by very hot surfaces only seen on the inside of the jet nozzle. This allows only rear-aspect engagement of jet targets, earning the weapon its other moniker as a revenge weapon, since the missile has to "chase" an aircraft after it has already passed by.
The Strela-2M was also procured for use on-board Warsaw Pact
warships; installed on four-round pedestal mounts aboard Soviet amphibious warfare vessels and various smaller combatants, the weapon remained unchanged, but was assigned the NATO reporting name SA-N-5 'Grail'.
When engaging slow or straight-receding targets, the operator tracks the target with the iron sights in the launch tube and applies half-trigger. This action "uncages" the seeker and allows it attempt to track. If target IR signature can be tracked against the background present, this is indicated by green light and buzzer sound. The shooter then pulls the trigger fully, and immediately applies lead and superelevation. This method is called a manual engagement. An automatic mode, which is used against fast targets, allows the shooter to fully depress the trigger in one pull followed by immediate lead and superelevation of the launch tube. The seeker will uncage and will automatically launch the missile if a strong enough signal is detected.
Manufacturer lists reaction time measured from carrying position (missile carried at soldier's back with protective covers) to missile launch to be 13 seconds, a figure that is achievable but requires considerable training and skill in missile handling. With launcher on the shoulder, covers removed and sights extended, reaction time from fire command to launch reduces to 6–10 seconds, depending greatly on target difficulty and shooter's skill.
After activating the power supply to the missile electronics, the gunner waits for electricity supply and gyros to stabilize, puts the sights on target and tracks it smoothly with the launch tube's iron sights, and pulls the trigger on the grip stock. This activates the seeker electronics and the missile attempts to lock onto the target. If the target is producing a strong enough signal and the angular tracking rate is within acceptable launch parameters, the missile alerts the gunner that the target is locked on by illuminating a red light in the sight mechanism, and producing a constant buzzing noise. The operator then has 0.8 seconds to provide lead to the target while the missiles on-board power supply is activated and the throw-out motor ignited.
Should the target be outside acceptable parameters then the light cue in the sight and buzzer signal tell the gunner to re-aim the missile.
On launch, the booster burns out before the missile leaves the launch tube at 32 m/s, and rotating the missile at approximately 20 revolutions per second. As the missile leaves the tube the two forward steering fins unfold, as do the four rear stabilizing tail fins. The self-destruct mechanism is then armed, which is set to destroy the missile after between 14 and 17 seconds to prevent it hitting the ground if it should miss the target.
Once the missile is five and half meters away from the gunner, approximately 0.3 seconds after leaving the launch tube it activates the rocket sustainer motor. The sustainer motor takes it to a velocity of 430 meters per second, and sustains it at this speed. Once it reaches peak speed at a distance of around 120 meters from the gunner, the final safety mechanism is disabled and the missile is fully armed. All told, the booster burns for 0.5 second and the driving engine for another 2.0 seconds.
The missile's uncooled lead sulphide passive infra-red seeker head detects infrared radiation at below 2.8 μm in wavelength. It has a 1.9 degree field of view and can track at 9 degrees per second. The seeker head tracks the target with an amplitude-modulated spinning reticle (spin-scan or AM tracking), which attempts to keep the seeker constantly pointed towards the target. The spinning reticle measures the amount of incoming infrared (IR) energy. It does this by using a circular pattern that has solid portions and slats that allow the IR energy to pass through to the seeker. As the reticle spins IR energy passes through the open portions of the reticle. Based on where the IR energy falls on the reticle the amount or amplitude of IR energy allowed through to the seeker increases the closer to the center of the reticle. Therefore, the seeker is able to identify where the center of the IR energy is. If the seeker detects a decrease in the amplitude of the IR energy it steers the missile back towards where the IR energy was the strongest. Unfortunately, the seeker's design creates a dead-space in the middle of the reticle. The center mounted reticle has no detection capability. This means that as the seeker tracks a target as soon as the seeker is dead center, (aimed directly at the IR source) there is a decrease in the amplitude of IR energy. The seeker interprets this decrease as being off target so it changes direction. This causes the missile to move off target until another decrease in IR energy is detected and the process repeats itself. This gives the missile a very noticeable wobble in flight as the seeker bounces in and out from the dead-space. This wobble becomes more pronounced as the missile closes on the target as the IR energy fills a greater portion of the reticle. These continuous course corrections effectively bleed energy from the missile reducing its range and velocity.
The guidance of the SA-7 follows proportional convergence logic, also known as angle rate tracking system or pro-logic. In this method as the seeker tracks the target, the missile is turned towards where the seeker is turning towards - not where it is pointing at - relative to the missile longitudinal axis. Against a target flying in a straight-line course at constant speed, the angle rate of seeker-to-body reduces to zero when the missile is in a straight-line flight path to intercept point.
by Egyptian soldiers. The first 'kill' was claimed on 19 August 1969. A 102 Squadron A-4H Skyhawk was hit with a shoulder-fired missile 12 miles west of the Suez Canal and pilot SqL Nassim Ezer Ashkenazi captured. Between this first firing and June 1970 the Egyptian army fired 99 missiles resulting in 36 hits. The missile proved to have poor kinematic reach against combat jets, and also poor lethality as many aircraft that were hit managed to return safely to base. The missile was used later in the Yom Kippur War
, where Strela were fired in the hundreds, scoring not many hits and few kills (A-4s had their exhaust pipes lengthened, in order to avoid fatal damages to the engine, a solution made in the previous war, together with flare launchers) but, together with Shilka
and SA-2/3/6s they caused very heavy losses to the Israeli Air Force
in the first days, after that the Arab SAMs firings were so high, that they almost depleted their weapon stocks. SA-7s were not that effective against fast jets, but they were the best weapon available to Arab infantry at the time.
During Operation Desert Storm, an Iraqi soldier armed with a MANPADS is reported to have seen a Strela-2 shoot down an American AC-130H gunship, AF Serial No. 69-6567, killing all 14 crewmembers.
A Strela-2 missile is said to have been used in Iraq, April 2005, when members of the Iraqi resistance shot down an Mi-8
helicopter operated by Blackwater
, killing all 11 crew members. The Islamic Army in Iraq
took responsibility for the action and a video showing the downing was released in the Internet. The missile launcher is not visible on the video, however, making it impossible to confirm the type of MANPADS used.
Strela-2 missiles have been used against Turkish Army
helicopters in several occasions during the clashes between Turkey and the Kurdish separatist organization PKK. On May 18, 1997; a Turkish Army AS-532UL Cougar utility helicopter was shot down with a Strela-2 missile in Southeast Turkey. Only a couple weeks later, on June 4, 1997; another Strela-2 missile was used to shoot down an AH-1W Super Cobra attack helicopter in the area. The video of the latter attack was used extensively for PKK propaganda and eventually released to the Internet.
A total of approximately 40–50 kills are attributed to Strela-2/2M hits between 1970 and the fall of Saigon, all but one TA-4 Skyhawk against helicopters and propeller-driven aircraft. As in the War of Attrition, the missile's speed and range proved insufficient against fast jets and results were very poor: only one US Skyhawk and one South Vietnamese F-5 are known to have been shot down by with Strela-2s during the conflict.
US fixed-wing losses are listed in the following table. The internet site Arms-expo.ru states 14 fixed-wing aircraft and 10 helicopters were shot down with 161 missile rounds used between April 28 and July 14 of 1972; the difference in fixed-wing losses may be at least partly due to South Vietnamese aircraft shot down by the weapon.
The table shows heavy losses particularly in the beginning of May, with especially lethal results on 1st-2 May, where the shootdown of the O-2 FAC led to further losses when a rescue operation was attempted. After these initial losses, changes in tactics and widespread introduction of decoy flares helped to counter the threat, but a steady flow of attrition and necessity of minimizing time spent in the Strela's engagement envelope nonetheless continued to limit the effectiveness of US battlefield air operations until the end of US involvement in South-East Asia. The United States lost at least 10 AH-1 Cobras and several UH-1 Hueys to Strela-2/2M hits in South East Asia.
In the late 1980s, Strela-2s were used against Royal Thai Air Force
aircraft by Laotian and Vietnamese forces during the numerous border clashes of that period. A RTAF F-5E was damaged on 4 March 1987 and another F-5E was shot down on 4 February 1988 near the Thai-Cambodian border.
Strela-2M was used also in Afghanistan during the Soviet war in Afghanistan
by the Mujahiddeen. The missiles were obtained from various sources, some from Egypt and China (locally manufactured Sakr Eye and HN-5 versions of the SAM), and the CIA also assisted the guerrillas in finding missiles from other sources.
Results from combat use were not dissimilar from experiences with the Strela-2/2M from Vietnam: while 42 helicopters were shot down by various Strela-2 variants (including a few Mi-24s until exhaust shrouds made them next to invisible to the short-wavelength Strela-2 seeker) only 5 fixed-wing aircraft were destroyed with the weapon. Due to its poor kinematic performance and vulnerability to even the most primitive infra-red countermeasures, the guerrillas considered the Strela-2 suitable for use against helicopters and prop-driven transports, but not combat jets.
(1964–1979) ZIPRA
insurgents used the Strela against unarmed civilian aircraft and brought down two Vickers Viscount
passenger aircraft belonging to Air Rhodesia. There was great loss of life in both instances as the flights were returning from Kariba
, a well known tourist attraction.
In the first incident the terrorists followed up the crashed aircraft and systematically murdered survivors from the aircrash as they lay in the wreckage. The Archbishop of Mashonaland described this act as the most barbaric act of the war in a well publicised sermon that subsequently saw him removed from his post.
began to receive SA-7s in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air superiority. On 23 March 1973, two Portuguese Air Force
(FAP) Fiat G.91s were shot down by SA-7s, followed six weeks later by another Fiat, and a Dornier Do 27
.
FRELIMO fighters in Mozambique
were also able to field some SA-7s with Chinese support, although the weapon is not known to have caused any losses to the FAP, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. In one case a Douglas DC-3
carrying foreign military attaches and members of the senior Portuguese military command was hit by an SA-7 in one of the engines. The crippled plane managed to land safely and was later repaired.
There are many reports of SA-7s being used in Africa; it must be made clear, however, that it is not easy to say which types of Russian (or Chinese) MANPADS were used, be they SA-7a, -b or newer types, such as the SA-14.
In Angola and Namibia many were fired against the South African Air Force
with limited success. The SAAF lost Atlas Impalas
to SA-7s on 24 January 1980 and 10 October 1980. Another Impala was hit by a SA-7 on 23 December 1983, but the pilot was able to fly the aircraft back to Ondangwa AB. UNITA
also reportedly obtained 50 SA-7s that Israel
had captured, via the CIA. The first one was fired at an Cuban aircraft by French mercenary contracted by the UNITA on 13 March 1976, but the missile failed to hit the target. The missiles were found to be in poor condition none scored a hit. Eventually, UNITA obtained more SA-7s, as it is claimed that they used one to shoot down a TAAG 737-2M2 taking off from Lubango
on 8 November 1983. Additionally, it is claimed that they used SA-7s to shoot down two Transafrik International
Lockheed L-100-30 Hercules flying UN charters, on 26 December 1998 and 2 January 1999, both near Huambo.
Using a SA-7, the Sudan People's Liberation Army
shot down a Sudan Airways
Fokker F-27 Friendship 400M taking off from Malakal
on 16 August 1986, killing all 60 on board. On 21 December 1989, an Aviation Sans Frontières Britten-Norman BN-2A-9 Islander
(F-OGSM) was shot down by a SA-7 while taking off from Aweil Sudan, killing the four crew on board.
A Lignes Aériennes Congolaises
Boeing 727-30
taking off from Kindu was shot down by a SA-7 fired by rebel forces, killing all 41 on board.
The Polisario Front
has used SA-7s against the Royal Moroccan Air Force
and Mauritanian Air Force
during the Western Sahara War
over the former Spanish colonies of the Spanish Sahara
. The Mauritania Air Force lost a Britten-Norman Defender
to a SA-7 fired by the Polisario on 29 December 1976. Between 1975 and 1991, the Royal Moroccan Air Force has lost several Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighters and Dassault Mirage F1s
to SA-7s fired by the Polisario. In a case of mistaken identity, a Dornier Do 228
owned by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
was shot down over the Western Sahara near Dakhla
on 24 February 1985. Two Dornier 228s named Polar 2 and Polar 3
were on a return flight to Germany following a South Pole expedition. After having taken off from Dakar
, Senegal
, enroute to Arrecife
, Canary Islands
, flying 5 minutes behind Polar 2 and at a lower altitude (9,000 feet), Polar 3 was shot down by a SA-7 fired by the Polisario. The crew of three were killed. In another incident, on 8 December 1988, two Douglas DC-7CFs
flying at 11,000 feet from Dakar, Senegal to Agadir
, Morocco for a locust control mission there, had SA-7s fired at them by the Polisario. One aircraft, N284, was hit and lost one of its engines and part of a wing. This led to the aircraft crashing, killing the crew of five. The other aircraft, N90804, also was hit and lost an engine along with suffering other damage, but it was able to land safely at Sidi Ifni
Morocco.
fighters in Nicaragua
was shot down by a Sandinista soldier, using a SA-7. CIA pilots Wallace "Buzz" Sawyer and William Cooper were killed in the crash. Loadmaster Eugene Hasenfus
parachuted to safety and was taken prisoner. He was later released in December 1986.
. A handful of missiles were fired, but no kills were scored.. War Machine Encyclopedia gives no launch recorded, but several missiles were captured. The missiles were supplied by Libya.
during the 2002 Mombasa attacks. Neither missile struck its target.
) (being replaced by PZR Grom
) (CA-94 local version)
Surface-to-air missile
A surface-to-air missile or ground-to-air missile is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles...
system with a high explosive warhead
Warhead
The term warhead refers to the explosive material and detonator that is delivered by a missile, rocket, or torpedo.- Etymology :During the early development of naval torpedoes, they could be equipped with an inert payload that was intended for use during training, test firing and exercises. This...
and passive infrared homing
Infrared homing
Infrared homing refers to a passive missile guidance system which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared is just below the...
guidance. Broadly comparable to the US Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
FIM-43 Redeye
FIM-43 Redeye
The General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye was a man-portable surface-to-air missile system. It used infrared homing to track its target. Production was terminated in September 1969 after about 85,000 rounds had been built - in anticipation of the Redeye II, which later became the FIM-92 Stinger...
, it was the first generation of Soviet
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
man-portable SAMs, entering service in 1968, with series production starting in 1970.
Described by one expert as being "the premier Russian export line", the Strela and its variants have seen widespread use in nearly every regional conflict since 1968.
Development
The end of World War II saw a major shift in Soviet defense policy. The advent of long range, high altitude, nuclear-armed American bombers, capable of penetrating Soviet airspace at heights and speeds unreachable and unmatchable by all existing anti-aircraft guns and most interceptors, at a stroke appeared to render every conventional weapon obsolete. To counter this large vulnerability, numerous long-range, high-altitude SAM systems, such as the SA-1 "Guild" and SA-2 "Guideline", were rapidly developed and fielded, but due to the apparent 'obsolescence' of conventional arms, relatively little development took place to field mobile battlefield air defenses.This direction was soon to change, however, with the beginning of the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
. An entirely conventional conflict, it proved that nuclear weapons were not the be-all and end-all of warfare. In the face of a powerful and modern American air force, carrying non-nuclear payloads, the Soviet Union invested heavily in a multi-tier air defense system, consisting of several new mobile SAMs, to cover all altitude ranges and protect ground forces. The new doctrine listed five requirements:
- FrontFront (military)A military front or battlefront is a contested armed frontier between opposing forces. This can be a local or tactical front, or it can range to a theater...
-level medium to high altitude area defense system 9K8 Krug (NATO designation SA-4 “Ganef”) - ArmyArmyAn army An army An army (from Latin arma "arms, weapons" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based military of a nation or state. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
-level low to medium-range area defense system 3K9 KubSA-6 GainfulThe 2K12 "Kub" mobile surface-to-air missile system is a Soviet low to medium-level air defence system designed to protect ground forces from air attack. "2К12" is the GRAU designation of the system...
(NATO designation SA-6 “Gainful”) - DivisionDivision (military)A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions typically make up a corps...
-level low altitude short-range system 9K33 Osa (NATO designation SA-8 “Gecko”) - RegimentRegimentA regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
-level all-weather radar-guided gun system ZSU-23-4ZSU-23-4The ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" is a lightly armored, self-propelled, radar guided anti-aircraft weapon system . ZSU stands for Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka , meaning "anti-aircraft self-propelled mount". The "23" signifies the bore diameter in millimeters. The "4" signifies the number of gun barrels. It...
“Shilka” and very short range missile systems Strela-1 (NATO designation SA-9 "Gaskin") - BattalionBattalionA battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
-level man-portable Strela-2 (NATO SA-7 “Grail”)
ZSU-23-4
The ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" is a lightly armored, self-propelled, radar guided anti-aircraft weapon system . ZSU stands for Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka , meaning "anti-aircraft self-propelled mount". The "23" signifies the bore diameter in millimeters. The "4" signifies the number of gun barrels. It...
in the regimental air defense role.
As development began in the Turopov OKB
OKB
OKB is a transliteration of the Russian acronym for "Опытное конструкторское бюро" - Opytnoe Konstructorskoe Byuro, meaning Experimental Design Bureau...
(later changed to Kolomna), detailed information on the design of the US FIM-43 Redeye
FIM-43 Redeye
The General Dynamics FIM-43 Redeye was a man-portable surface-to-air missile system. It used infrared homing to track its target. Production was terminated in September 1969 after about 85,000 rounds had been built - in anticipation of the Redeye II, which later became the FIM-92 Stinger...
became available. While it was by no means a simple reverse-engineered copy, in many ways the Strela design borrowed heavily from the Redeye, which had started development a few years earlier. Due to the comparatively primitive Soviet technical base, development was protracted, and many problems arose, especially in designing a sufficiently small seeker head and rocket. Eventually the designers settled for a simpler seeker head than that of the Redeye, allowing the initial version, the 9K32 “Strela-2” (US DoD
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
designation SA-7A, missile round 9M32) to finally enter service in 1968, five years behind schedule.
Improvements
The initial variant suffered from numerous shortcomings: it could only engage targets flying at relatively slow airspeeds and low altitudes and then only from rear hemisphere, it suffered from poor guidance reliability (particularly in the presence of natural or man-made background IR radiation sources), and even when a hit was achieved, it often failed to destroy the target. Poor lethality was an issue especially when used against jet aircraft: the hottest part of the target was the nozzleNozzle
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow as it exits an enclosed chamber or pipe via an orifice....
behind the actual engine, which the missile therefore usually hit - but there its small warhead often failed to cause significant damage to the engine itself.
In order to address the shortcomings, two improved versions were ordered already in 1968; as an intermediate stop-gap the slightly improved 9K32M “Strela-2M” (NATO reporting name SA-7b) to replace the original, as well as the more ambitious Strela-3
9K34 Strela-3
The 9K34 Strela-3 man-portable air defence missile system was developed in the Soviet Union as a response to the poor performance of the earlier 9K32 Strela 2 system. "9K34" is its GRAU designation and its NATO reporting name is SA-14 Gremlin. The missile was largely based on the earlier Strela...
.
As the modifications introduced with the Strela-2M were relatively minor, the process was fast and it was accepted in service already in 1970. The Strela-2M replaced Strela-2 in production lines immediately. Improvements were made particularly to increase the engagement envelope of the new system:
- higher thrust propellant increased slant range from 3.4 to 4.2 km and ceiling from 1.5 to 2.3 km
- improved guidance and control logic allowed the engagement of propeller-driven and helicopter aircraft (but not jets) approaching at a maximum speed of 150 m/s
- maximum speed of receding targets was increased from 220 m/s to 260 m/s
- more automated gripstock provided a simplified firing method against fast targets: a single trigger pull followed by lead and superelevation replacing the separate stages of releasing the seeker to track, and launching the missile (see Description below)
Contrary to what was at first reported in some Western publications, more recent information indicates that while lethality on impact had proven to be a problem, the warhead remained the same 1.17 kg unit (including 370 gram TNT charge) as in the original. This in fact remained the warhead of all Soviet MANPADS up to and including most Igla variants; to address the problem of poor lethality, a more powerful HE filling than TNT, improved fuzing, a terminal maneuver, and finally a separate charge to set off any remaining rocket fuel were gradually introduced in later MANPADS systems, but the original Strela-2/2M warhead design of 370g directed-energy HE charge in a pre-fragmented casing remained.
The seeker head improvements were only minor changes to allow better discrimination of the target signal against background emissions. Some sources claim that the seeker sensitivity was also improved. The only defence against infra-red countermeasures remained the seeker head's narrow field of view
Field of view
The field of view is the extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment....
, which could be hoped to help the rapidly slowing flare fall off the missile field of view as it was tracking a fast-moving target. In practice, flares proved to be highly effective countermeasure against both versions of the Strela-2.
The seeker is commonly referred to as a hot metal tracker. The seeker can only see infrared energy in the near infrared (NIR) spectrum, emitted by very hot surfaces only seen on the inside of the jet nozzle. This allows only rear-aspect engagement of jet targets, earning the weapon its other moniker as a revenge weapon, since the missile has to "chase" an aircraft after it has already passed by.
The Strela-2M was also procured for use on-board Warsaw Pact
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance , or more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe...
warships; installed on four-round pedestal mounts aboard Soviet amphibious warfare vessels and various smaller combatants, the weapon remained unchanged, but was assigned the NATO reporting name SA-N-5 'Grail'.
Description
The missile launcher system consists of the green missile launch tube containing the missile, a grip stock and a cylindrical thermal battery. The launch tube is reloadable at depot, but missile rounds are delivered to fire units in their launch tubes. The device can be reloaded up to five times.When engaging slow or straight-receding targets, the operator tracks the target with the iron sights in the launch tube and applies half-trigger. This action "uncages" the seeker and allows it attempt to track. If target IR signature can be tracked against the background present, this is indicated by green light and buzzer sound. The shooter then pulls the trigger fully, and immediately applies lead and superelevation. This method is called a manual engagement. An automatic mode, which is used against fast targets, allows the shooter to fully depress the trigger in one pull followed by immediate lead and superelevation of the launch tube. The seeker will uncage and will automatically launch the missile if a strong enough signal is detected.
Manufacturer lists reaction time measured from carrying position (missile carried at soldier's back with protective covers) to missile launch to be 13 seconds, a figure that is achievable but requires considerable training and skill in missile handling. With launcher on the shoulder, covers removed and sights extended, reaction time from fire command to launch reduces to 6–10 seconds, depending greatly on target difficulty and shooter's skill.
After activating the power supply to the missile electronics, the gunner waits for electricity supply and gyros to stabilize, puts the sights on target and tracks it smoothly with the launch tube's iron sights, and pulls the trigger on the grip stock. This activates the seeker electronics and the missile attempts to lock onto the target. If the target is producing a strong enough signal and the angular tracking rate is within acceptable launch parameters, the missile alerts the gunner that the target is locked on by illuminating a red light in the sight mechanism, and producing a constant buzzing noise. The operator then has 0.8 seconds to provide lead to the target while the missiles on-board power supply is activated and the throw-out motor ignited.
Should the target be outside acceptable parameters then the light cue in the sight and buzzer signal tell the gunner to re-aim the missile.
On launch, the booster burns out before the missile leaves the launch tube at 32 m/s, and rotating the missile at approximately 20 revolutions per second. As the missile leaves the tube the two forward steering fins unfold, as do the four rear stabilizing tail fins. The self-destruct mechanism is then armed, which is set to destroy the missile after between 14 and 17 seconds to prevent it hitting the ground if it should miss the target.
Once the missile is five and half meters away from the gunner, approximately 0.3 seconds after leaving the launch tube it activates the rocket sustainer motor. The sustainer motor takes it to a velocity of 430 meters per second, and sustains it at this speed. Once it reaches peak speed at a distance of around 120 meters from the gunner, the final safety mechanism is disabled and the missile is fully armed. All told, the booster burns for 0.5 second and the driving engine for another 2.0 seconds.
The missile's uncooled lead sulphide passive infra-red seeker head detects infrared radiation at below 2.8 μm in wavelength. It has a 1.9 degree field of view and can track at 9 degrees per second. The seeker head tracks the target with an amplitude-modulated spinning reticle (spin-scan or AM tracking), which attempts to keep the seeker constantly pointed towards the target. The spinning reticle measures the amount of incoming infrared (IR) energy. It does this by using a circular pattern that has solid portions and slats that allow the IR energy to pass through to the seeker. As the reticle spins IR energy passes through the open portions of the reticle. Based on where the IR energy falls on the reticle the amount or amplitude of IR energy allowed through to the seeker increases the closer to the center of the reticle. Therefore, the seeker is able to identify where the center of the IR energy is. If the seeker detects a decrease in the amplitude of the IR energy it steers the missile back towards where the IR energy was the strongest. Unfortunately, the seeker's design creates a dead-space in the middle of the reticle. The center mounted reticle has no detection capability. This means that as the seeker tracks a target as soon as the seeker is dead center, (aimed directly at the IR source) there is a decrease in the amplitude of IR energy. The seeker interprets this decrease as being off target so it changes direction. This causes the missile to move off target until another decrease in IR energy is detected and the process repeats itself. This gives the missile a very noticeable wobble in flight as the seeker bounces in and out from the dead-space. This wobble becomes more pronounced as the missile closes on the target as the IR energy fills a greater portion of the reticle. These continuous course corrections effectively bleed energy from the missile reducing its range and velocity.
The guidance of the SA-7 follows proportional convergence logic, also known as angle rate tracking system or pro-logic. In this method as the seeker tracks the target, the missile is turned towards where the seeker is turning towards - not where it is pointing at - relative to the missile longitudinal axis. Against a target flying in a straight-line course at constant speed, the angle rate of seeker-to-body reduces to zero when the missile is in a straight-line flight path to intercept point.
Combat use
As a consequence of their widespread availability and large numbers, the Strela system has seen use in conflicts across the globe.Middle East
Jane's credits the first combat use of the missile as being in 1969 during the War of AttritionWar of Attrition
The international community and both countries attempted to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. The Jarring Mission of the United Nations was supposed to ensure that the terms of UN Security Council Resolution 242 would be observed, but by late 1970 it was clear that this mission had been...
by Egyptian soldiers. The first 'kill' was claimed on 19 August 1969. A 102 Squadron A-4H Skyhawk was hit with a shoulder-fired missile 12 miles west of the Suez Canal and pilot SqL Nassim Ezer Ashkenazi captured. Between this first firing and June 1970 the Egyptian army fired 99 missiles resulting in 36 hits. The missile proved to have poor kinematic reach against combat jets, and also poor lethality as many aircraft that were hit managed to return safely to base. The missile was used later in the Yom Kippur War
Yom Kippur War
The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War or October War , also known as the 1973 Arab-Israeli War and the Fourth Arab-Israeli War, was fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria...
, where Strela were fired in the hundreds, scoring not many hits and few kills (A-4s had their exhaust pipes lengthened, in order to avoid fatal damages to the engine, a solution made in the previous war, together with flare launchers) but, together with Shilka
ZSU-23-4
The ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" is a lightly armored, self-propelled, radar guided anti-aircraft weapon system . ZSU stands for Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka , meaning "anti-aircraft self-propelled mount". The "23" signifies the bore diameter in millimeters. The "4" signifies the number of gun barrels. It...
and SA-2/3/6s they caused very heavy losses to the Israeli Air Force
Israeli Air Force
The Israeli Air Force is the air force of the State of Israel and the aerial arm of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28, 1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence...
in the first days, after that the Arab SAMs firings were so high, that they almost depleted their weapon stocks. SA-7s were not that effective against fast jets, but they were the best weapon available to Arab infantry at the time.
During Operation Desert Storm, an Iraqi soldier armed with a MANPADS is reported to have seen a Strela-2 shoot down an American AC-130H gunship, AF Serial No. 69-6567, killing all 14 crewmembers.
A Strela-2 missile is said to have been used in Iraq, April 2005, when members of the Iraqi resistance shot down an Mi-8
Mil Mi-8
The Mil Mi-8 is a medium twin-turbine transport helicopter that can also act as a gunship. The Mi-8 is the world's most-produced helicopter, and is used by over 50 countries. Russia is the largest operator of the Mi-8/Mi-17 helicopter....
helicopter operated by Blackwater
Blackwater Worldwide
Xe Services LLC, better known by its former names, Blackwater USA and Blackwater Worldwide, is a private military company founded in 1997 by Erik Prince and Al Clark.. Xe is currently the largest of the U.S. State Department's three private security contractors...
, killing all 11 crew members. The Islamic Army in Iraq
Islamic Army in Iraq
The Islamic Army in Iraq is one of a number of underground Baathist and Islamist militant organizations formed in Iraq following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by United States and coalition military forces, and the subsequent collapse of the Baathist government headed by Saddam Hussein.Although it...
took responsibility for the action and a video showing the downing was released in the Internet. The missile launcher is not visible on the video, however, making it impossible to confirm the type of MANPADS used.
Strela-2 missiles have been used against Turkish Army
Turkish Army
The Turkish Army or Turkish Land Forces is the main branch of the Turkish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The modern history of the army began with its formation after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire...
helicopters in several occasions during the clashes between Turkey and the Kurdish separatist organization PKK. On May 18, 1997; a Turkish Army AS-532UL Cougar utility helicopter was shot down with a Strela-2 missile in Southeast Turkey. Only a couple weeks later, on June 4, 1997; another Strela-2 missile was used to shoot down an AH-1W Super Cobra attack helicopter in the area. The video of the latter attack was used extensively for PKK propaganda and eventually released to the Internet.
South-East Asia
The Strela-2 system was also given to North Vietnam forces, where along with the more advanced Strela-2M it achieved 204 hits out of 589 firings against US aircraft between 1972 and 1975 according to Russian sources. (Some sources such as Fiszer (2004) claim it was used already from 1968 onwards).A total of approximately 40–50 kills are attributed to Strela-2/2M hits between 1970 and the fall of Saigon, all but one TA-4 Skyhawk against helicopters and propeller-driven aircraft. As in the War of Attrition, the missile's speed and range proved insufficient against fast jets and results were very poor: only one US Skyhawk and one South Vietnamese F-5 are known to have been shot down by with Strela-2s during the conflict.
US fixed-wing losses are listed in the following table. The internet site Arms-expo.ru states 14 fixed-wing aircraft and 10 helicopters were shot down with 161 missile rounds used between April 28 and July 14 of 1972; the difference in fixed-wing losses may be at least partly due to South Vietnamese aircraft shot down by the weapon.
| Date | Type | Unit | Altitude when hit (ft) |
Casualties | Mission | Location |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 01-05-1972 | O-2A | 20th TASS | ? | 0 | FAC | Quang Tri |
| 01-05-1972 | A-1H | 1 SOS | 3500 | 0 | SAR | Quang Tri |
| 02-05-1972 | A-1E | 1 SOS | 5500 | 0 | SAR | Quang Tri |
| 02-05-1972 | A-1G | 1 SOS | 6500 | 1 WIA | SAR | Quang Tri |
| 14-05-1972 | O-1 | 4000 | 0 | FAC | An Loc | |
| 26-05-1972 | TA-4F | H&MS-15 | 4500 | 0 | armed recce | Hue |
| 18-06-1972 | AC-130A | 16 SOS | 12 KIA | armed recce | A Shau | |
| 29-06-1972 | OV-10A | 20 TASS | 6500 | 1 KIA | FAC | Quang Tri |
| 02-07-1972 | O-1 | 0 | FAC | Phum Long (Cambodia) | ||
| 19-12-1972 | OV-10A | 20 TASS | 1 KIA | FAC | Quang Tri | |
| 27-01-1973 | OV-10A | 23 TASS | 6000 | 2 MIA | FAC | Quang Tri |
The table shows heavy losses particularly in the beginning of May, with especially lethal results on 1st-2 May, where the shootdown of the O-2 FAC led to further losses when a rescue operation was attempted. After these initial losses, changes in tactics and widespread introduction of decoy flares helped to counter the threat, but a steady flow of attrition and necessity of minimizing time spent in the Strela's engagement envelope nonetheless continued to limit the effectiveness of US battlefield air operations until the end of US involvement in South-East Asia. The United States lost at least 10 AH-1 Cobras and several UH-1 Hueys to Strela-2/2M hits in South East Asia.
In the late 1980s, Strela-2s were used against Royal Thai Air Force
Royal Thai Air Force
The Royal Thai Air Force or RTAF is the air force of the Kingdom of Thailand. Since its establishment in 1913, as one of the earliest air forces of Asia, the Royal Thai Air Force had engaged in many major and minor battles. During the Vietnam war era, the air force has been developed with USAF-aid...
aircraft by Laotian and Vietnamese forces during the numerous border clashes of that period. A RTAF F-5E was damaged on 4 March 1987 and another F-5E was shot down on 4 February 1988 near the Thai-Cambodian border.
Afghanistan
Soviet war in Afghanistan
The Soviet war in Afghanistan was a nine-year conflict involving the Soviet Union, supporting the Marxist-Leninist government of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan against the Afghan Mujahideen and foreign "Arab–Afghan" volunteers...
by the Mujahiddeen. The missiles were obtained from various sources, some from Egypt and China (locally manufactured Sakr Eye and HN-5 versions of the SAM), and the CIA also assisted the guerrillas in finding missiles from other sources.
Results from combat use were not dissimilar from experiences with the Strela-2/2M from Vietnam: while 42 helicopters were shot down by various Strela-2 variants (including a few Mi-24s until exhaust shrouds made them next to invisible to the short-wavelength Strela-2 seeker) only 5 fixed-wing aircraft were destroyed with the weapon. Due to its poor kinematic performance and vulnerability to even the most primitive infra-red countermeasures, the guerrillas considered the Strela-2 suitable for use against helicopters and prop-driven transports, but not combat jets.
Rhodesia
During the Rhodesian Bush WarRhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War – also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation – was a civil war which took place between July 1964 and December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia...
(1964–1979) ZIPRA
ZIPRA
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a political party in Rhodesia. It participated in the Second Chimurenga against white minority rule in the former Rhodesia....
insurgents used the Strela against unarmed civilian aircraft and brought down two Vickers Viscount
Vickers Viscount
The Vickers Viscount was a British medium-range turboprop airliner first flown in 1948 by Vickers-Armstrongs, making it the first such aircraft to enter service in the world...
passenger aircraft belonging to Air Rhodesia. There was great loss of life in both instances as the flights were returning from Kariba
Kariba, Zimbabwe
Kariba is a town in Mashonaland West province, Zimbabwe, located close to the Kariba Dam at the northwestern end of Lake Kariba, near the Zambian border. According to the 1992 Population Census, the town had a population of 20,736....
, a well known tourist attraction.
- Vickers Viscount, Flight RH825, 3 September 1978 — shot by down Strela missile near Kariba Dam. 18 of the 56 passengers survived the crash, but ten of them were executed on the ground by ZIPRA guerrillas.
- Vickers Viscount, Flight RH827Air Rhodesia Flight RH827Air Rhodesia Flight 827, the Umniati, was a scheduled flight RH827 between Kariba and Salisbury that was shot down on 12 February 1979 by ZIPRA terrorists using a Strela 2 missile soon after take-off...
, 12 February 1979 — shot by down Strela missile near Kariba Dam; all 59 people on board killed.
In the first incident the terrorists followed up the crashed aircraft and systematically murdered survivors from the aircrash as they lay in the wreckage. The Archbishop of Mashonaland described this act as the most barbaric act of the war in a well publicised sermon that subsequently saw him removed from his post.
Southern Lebanon
On June 24, 1974, Palestinians in southern Lebanon fired 2 SA-7s against invading Israeli aircraft, though no hits were scored.Africa
When PAIGC rebels in GuineaGuinea-Bissau War of Independence
Guinea-Bissau War of Independence was an armed conflict and national liberation struggle in Portuguese Guinea between 1963 and 1974.-Background:...
began to receive SA-7s in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air superiority. On 23 March 1973, two Portuguese Air Force
Portuguese Air Force
The Portuguese Air Force is the air force of Portugal. Formed on July 1, 1952, with the Aeronáutica Militar and Aviação Naval united in a single independent Air Force, it is one of the three branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces and its origins dates back to 1912, when the military aviation...
(FAP) Fiat G.91s were shot down by SA-7s, followed six weeks later by another Fiat, and a Dornier Do 27
Dornier Do 27
-See also:-Bibliography:*Green, William. Macdonald Aircraft Handbook. London. Macdonald & Co. Ltd., 1964.*Jackson, Paul A. German Military Aviation 1956-1976. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1976. ISBN 0-904597-03-2.-External links:**...
.
FRELIMO fighters in Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
were also able to field some SA-7s with Chinese support, although the weapon is not known to have caused any losses to the FAP, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. In one case a Douglas DC-3
Douglas DC-3
The Douglas DC-3 is an American fixed-wing propeller-driven aircraft whose speed and range revolutionized air transport in the 1930s and 1940s. Its lasting impact on the airline industry and World War II makes it one of the most significant transport aircraft ever made...
carrying foreign military attaches and members of the senior Portuguese military command was hit by an SA-7 in one of the engines. The crippled plane managed to land safely and was later repaired.
There are many reports of SA-7s being used in Africa; it must be made clear, however, that it is not easy to say which types of Russian (or Chinese) MANPADS were used, be they SA-7a, -b or newer types, such as the SA-14.
In Angola and Namibia many were fired against the South African Air Force
South African Air Force
The South African Air Force is the air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. It is the world's second oldest independent air force, and its motto is Per Aspera Ad Astra...
with limited success. The SAAF lost Atlas Impalas
Aermacchi MB-326
The Aermacchi or Macchi MB-326 is a light military jet aircraft designed in Italy. Originally conceived as a two-seat trainer, there have also been single and two-seat light attack versions produced. It is one of the most commercially successful aircraft of its type, being bought by more than 10...
to SA-7s on 24 January 1980 and 10 October 1980. Another Impala was hit by a SA-7 on 23 December 1983, but the pilot was able to fly the aircraft back to Ondangwa AB. UNITA
UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the Angolan War for Independence and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war .The war was one...
also reportedly obtained 50 SA-7s that Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
had captured, via the CIA. The first one was fired at an Cuban aircraft by French mercenary contracted by the UNITA on 13 March 1976, but the missile failed to hit the target. The missiles were found to be in poor condition none scored a hit. Eventually, UNITA obtained more SA-7s, as it is claimed that they used one to shoot down a TAAG 737-2M2 taking off from Lubango
Lubango
Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. Its last known population was 100,757. Until 1975, the city's official name was Sá da Bandeira.-Portuguese rule:...
on 8 November 1983. Additionally, it is claimed that they used SA-7s to shoot down two Transafrik International
Transafrik International
Transafrik International is a cargo airline based in Angola.-History:Transafrik has been in operation since 1984. It is a cargo airline, with airplane registration in the Republic of Sao Tome e Principe, is currently working on contracts for the United Nations and has previously been on contract...
Lockheed L-100-30 Hercules flying UN charters, on 26 December 1998 and 2 January 1999, both near Huambo.
Using a SA-7, the Sudan People's Liberation Army
Sudan People's Liberation Army
The Sudan People's Liberation Movement is a political party in South Sudan. It was initially founded as a rebel political movement with a military wing known as the Sudan People's Liberation Army estimated at 180,000 soldiers. The SPLM fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War against the Sudanese...
shot down a Sudan Airways
Sudan Airways
Sudan Airways is the national airline of Sudan, headquartered in Khartoum. The airline operates under the IATA airline designator SD and the ICAO airline designator SUD, while its callsign is SUDANAIR....
Fokker F-27 Friendship 400M taking off from Malakal
Malakal
-Location:The city of Malakal is located in Malakal County, Upper Nile State, in the northeast of South Sudan, close to the International borders with the Republic of Sudan and with Ethiopia...
on 16 August 1986, killing all 60 on board. On 21 December 1989, an Aviation Sans Frontières Britten-Norman BN-2A-9 Islander
Britten-Norman Islander
The Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander is a 1960s British light utility aircraft, regional airliner and cargo aircraft designed and originally manufactured by Britten-Norman of the United Kingdom. The Islander is one of the best-selling commercial aircraft types produced in Europe. Although designed in...
(F-OGSM) was shot down by a SA-7 while taking off from Aweil Sudan, killing the four crew on board.
A Lignes Aériennes Congolaises
Lignes Aeriennes Congolaises
Lignes Aériennes Congolaises was the flag carrier of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1997, when it was established to succeed the folded Air Zaire, and 2008, when it was disestablished....
Boeing 727-30
Boeing 727
The Boeing 727 is a mid-size, narrow-body, three-engine, T-tailed commercial jet airliner, manufactured by Boeing. The Boeing 727 first flew in 1963, and for over a decade more were built per year than any other jet airliner. When production ended in 1984 a total of 1,832 aircraft had been produced...
taking off from Kindu was shot down by a SA-7 fired by rebel forces, killing all 41 on board.
The Polisario Front
Polisario Front
The POLISARIO, Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro is a Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement working for the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco...
has used SA-7s against the Royal Moroccan Air Force
Royal Moroccan Air Force
The Royal Moroccan Air Force is the air force branch of the Moroccan Armed Forces.-History:...
and Mauritanian Air Force
Military of Mauritania
The military forces of Mauritania are listed by the IISS Military Balance 2007 as comprising 15,870 personnel with an additional 5,000 paramilitaries....
during the Western Sahara War
Western Sahara War
The Western Sahara War was an armed conflict primarily between the Polisario Front and Morocco, the conflict erupted after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords by which it gave administrative control of the territory to Morocco and Mauritania...
over the former Spanish colonies of the Spanish Sahara
Spanish Sahara
Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975...
. The Mauritania Air Force lost a Britten-Norman Defender
Britten-Norman Defender
|-External links:*...
to a SA-7 fired by the Polisario on 29 December 1976. Between 1975 and 1991, the Royal Moroccan Air Force has lost several Northrop F-5A Freedom Fighters and Dassault Mirage F1s
Dassault Mirage F1
The Dassault Mirage F1 is a French air-superiority fighter and attack aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation as a successor of the Mirage III family. The Mirage F1 entered service in the French Air Force in the early seventies...
to SA-7s fired by the Polisario. In a case of mistaken identity, a Dornier Do 228
Dornier Do 228
The Dornier 228 is a twin-turboprop STOL utility aircraft, manufactured by Dornier GmbH from 1981 until 1998. In 1983, Hindustan Aeronautics bought a production licence and manufactures the 228 for the Asian market sphere. Approximately 270 Do 228 were built at Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany and...
owned by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
The Alfred Wegener Institute of Polar and Marine Research is a scientific organization located in Bremerhaven, Germany. The institute was founded in 1980 and is named after revolutionary meteorologist climatologist, and geologist Alfred Wegener...
was shot down over the Western Sahara near Dakhla
Dakhla, Western Sahara
-External links:**...
on 24 February 1985. Two Dornier 228s named Polar 2 and Polar 3
Polar 3
Polar 3 was a Dornier Do 228 airplane of the Alfred Wegener Institute that was shot down south of Dakhla by guerrillas of the Polisario Front over Western Sahara on 24 February 1985....
were on a return flight to Germany following a South Pole expedition. After having taken off from Dakar
Dakar
Dakar is the capital city and largest city of Senegal. It is located on the Cap-Vert Peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city on the African mainland...
, Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
, enroute to Arrecife
Arrecife
Arrecife is a city in the Canary Islands situated in the centre-east of the island of Lanzarote of which it has been the capital since 1852. The city owes its name to the rock reef which covers the beach located in the city...
, Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, flying 5 minutes behind Polar 2 and at a lower altitude (9,000 feet), Polar 3 was shot down by a SA-7 fired by the Polisario. The crew of three were killed. In another incident, on 8 December 1988, two Douglas DC-7CFs
Douglas DC-7
The Douglas DC-7 is an American transport aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1953 to 1958. It was the last major piston engine powered transport made by Douglas, coming just a few years before the advent of jet aircraft such as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.-Design and...
flying at 11,000 feet from Dakar, Senegal to Agadir
Agadir
Agadir is a major city in southwest Morocco, capital of the Agadir province and the Sous-Massa-Draa economic region .-Etymology:...
, Morocco for a locust control mission there, had SA-7s fired at them by the Polisario. One aircraft, N284, was hit and lost one of its engines and part of a wing. This led to the aircraft crashing, killing the crew of five. The other aircraft, N90804, also was hit and lost an engine along with suffering other damage, but it was able to land safely at Sidi Ifni
Sidi Ifni
Sidi Ifni is a city located in southwest Morocco, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 20,000 people. The economic base of the city is fishing. It belongs to the Sous-Massa-Draa economic region and to the Sidi Ifni province. Its inhabitants are mainly Chleuhs from the Ait...
Morocco.
Central America
On 5 October 1986 a Corporate Air Services C-123 Provider (HPF821, previously N4410F and USAF 54-679, (c/n 20128)) conducting a covert drop of arms to ContraContras
The contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua's FSLN Sandinista Junta of National Reconstruction government following the July 1979 overthrow of Anastasio Somoza Debayle's dictatorship...
fighters in Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
was shot down by a Sandinista soldier, using a SA-7. CIA pilots Wallace "Buzz" Sawyer and William Cooper were killed in the crash. Loadmaster Eugene Hasenfus
Eugene Hasenfus
Eugene H. Hasenfus is a United States citizen who was alleged by Nicaragua Sandinista authorities to be employed by the U.S...
parachuted to safety and was taken prisoner. He was later released in December 1986.
Falklands War
Strela-2M missiles were available to Argentinian troops in the Falkland Islands during the Falklands WarFalklands War
The Falklands War , also called the Falklands Conflict or Falklands Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands...
. A handful of missiles were fired, but no kills were scored.. War Machine Encyclopedia gives no launch recorded, but several missiles were captured. The missiles were supplied by Libya.
Northern Ireland
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) acquired some missiles that were reported to have been fired at a British Army Air Corps Lynx in 1991 in South Armagh, however it missed its target. To counter the new threat the British helicopters flew in pairs below 50 feet or above 500 feet.Yugoslav Wars
The system was used on a large scale during the wars in former Yugoslavia by all Yugoslav successor states and factions. Among Strela's victims in these conflicts were military jets and helicopters.2002 Mombasa attacks
Two missiles were fired at a Boeing 757Boeing 757
The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Passenger versions of the twinjet have a capacity of 186 to 289 persons and a maximum range of , depending on variant and cabin configuration...
during the 2002 Mombasa attacks. Neither missile struck its target.
Iraq and Afghanistan
Strelas are used, along with other MANPAD systems, by insurgent groups in the ongoing Iraq and Afghan wars, however, as in previous conflicts, they are only effective against rotary-winged aircraft. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/majornews/1558756/Taliban-in-first-heat-seeking-missile-attack.html: The spate of helicopter shoot downs during 2006 and 2007 in Iraq has been partly attributed to the prevalence of the Strela amongst Sunni insurgent groups of that time http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2007/02/19/why_are_us_helicopters_getting_shot_down_in_iraq; while al Qaeda is said to have produced an hour-long training video on how to use SA-7s.Versions
- 9K32M Strela-2M — "SA-7b Grail"
- Strela 2M2J Sava — Yugoslav version
- CA-94 and CA-94M — Romanian versions
- HN-5HN-5The HN-5 , is a family of first generation Chinese man-portable air-defense systems based on Soviet technology. The literal translation of Hong Ying is Red Tassel, but HN abbreviation is used to avoid confusion with HY series anti-ship missiles of Silkworm missile family...
— Hongying 5, Chinese version - Anza MKI — Pakistani version
- Ayn al Saqr (Known as Sakr Eye) — Egyptian version
- Hwasung-Chong — North Korean version
Operators
http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Land-Based-Air-Defence/El-Salvador-El-Salvador.html (former East German Army assets) (being withdrawn from service with some other shoulder launched missile) (being replaced by Misagh-2Misagh-2
The Misagh 2 is an Iranian man-portable infrared guided surface to air missile. The Misagh 2 is the next version of the Misagh-1. Similar to its predecessor, the Misagh 2 is supposedly also based on Chinese technology...
) (being replaced by PZR Grom
Grom (missile)
The Grom is a man-portable air-defense system produced in Poland. It consists of a 72 mm anti-aircraft missile set with a flight speed of 650 m/s, as well as a single-use launcher, re-usable gripstock and thermal battery coolant assembly electric unit...
) (CA-94 local version)
- Many other countries, along with numerous terrorist and paramilitaryParamilitaryA paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not considered part of a state's formal armed forces....
groups.
Former Operators
Afghan Mujahideen: Received during the Falklands WarFalklands WarThe Falklands War , also called the Falklands Conflict or Falklands Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands...
, phased out from active service.: Phased out from active service. (Withdrawn from service) (Withdrawn from service) (Strela-2M, known as ItO-78. Withdrawn from service)- Frelimo
.svg.png)
- Hezbollah
Kosovo Liberation ArmyKosovo Liberation ArmyThe Kosovo Liberation Army or KLA was a Kosovar Albanian paramilitary organization which sought the separation of Kosovo from Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1990s....- Lebanese ForcesLebanese ForcesThe Lebanese Forces is a Lebanese political party. Founded as a militia by Bachir Gemayel during the Lebanese Civil War, the movement fought as the main militia within the Christian-dominated Lebanese Front...
Palestine Liberation OrganizationPalestine Liberation OrganizationThe Palestine Liberation Organization is a political and paramilitary organization which was created in 1964. It is recognized as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" by the United Nations and over 100 states with which it holds diplomatic relations, and has enjoyed...
factions in LebanonLebanonLebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
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PAIGC- Progressive Socialist PartyProgressive Socialist PartyThe Progressive Socialist Party or PSP , also known as Parti Socialiste Progressiste in French, is a political party in Lebanon. Its current leader is Walid Jumblatt...
DruzeDruzeThe Druze are an esoteric, monotheistic religious community, found primarily in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, which emerged during the 11th century from Ismailism. The Druze have an eclectic set of beliefs that incorporate several elements from Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism...
militia in LebanonLebanonLebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
. (Withdrawn from service) (in reserve) - UNITA
UNITAThe National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the Angolan War for Independence and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war .The war was one... - ZIPRAZIPRAZimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a political party in Rhodesia. It participated in the Second Chimurenga against white minority rule in the former Rhodesia....
- Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army