Sucralose
Encyclopedia
Sucralose is an artificial sweetener
. The majority of ingested sucralose is not broken down by the body and therefore it is non-caloric. In the European Union
, it is also known under the E number
(additive code) E955. Sucralose is approximately 600 times as sweet
as sucrose
(table sugar), twice as sweet as saccharin
, and 3.3 times as sweet as aspartame
. It is stable under heat and over a broad range of pH
conditions. Therefore, it can be used in baking or in products that require a longer shelf life. The commercial success of sucralose-based products stems from its favorable comparison to other low-calorie sweeteners in terms of taste, stability, and safety. Common brand names of sucralose-based sweeteners are Splenda
, Sukrana, SucraPlus, Candys, Cukren and Nevella.
, working with researchers Leslie Hough and Shashikant Phadnis at Queen Elizabeth College
(now part of King's College London
). While researching ways to use sucrose as a chemical intermediate in non-traditional areas, Phadnis was told to test a chlorinated sugar compound. Phadnis thought that Hough asked him to taste it, so he did. He found the compound to be exceptionally sweet.
Tate & Lyle patented the substance in 1976; as of 2008 the only remaining patents concern specific manufacturing processes.
Sucralose was first approved for use in Canada in 1991. Subsequent approvals came in Australia in 1993, in New Zealand in 1996, in the United States in 1998, and in the European Union in 2004. By 2008, it had been approved in over 80 countries, including Mexico, Brazil, China, India and Japan. In 2006 the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) amended the regulations for foods to include sucralose as a non-nutritive sweetener in food. In May 2008, Fusion Nutraceuticals launched a generic product to the market, using Tate & Lyle patents.
manufactures sucralose at a plant in Jurong, Singapore
. Formerly, it was produced at a plant in McIntosh, Alabama
. It is manufactured by the selective chlorination of sucrose (table sugar), which substitutes three of the hydroxyl groups
with chloride
. This chlorination is achieved by selective protection
of the primary alcohol groups followed by acetylation
and then deprotection of the primary alcohol groups. Following an induced acetyl migration on one of the hydroxyl groups, the partially acetylated sugar is then chlorinated with a chlorinating agent such as phosphorus oxychloride, followed by removal of the acetyl groups to give sucralose.
, acesulfame potassium
or high-fructose corn syrup. Sucralose is used in products such as candy
, breakfast
bars and soft drink
s. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of much higher calorie corn syrup-based additives. Sucralose mixed with maltodextrin
or dextrose
(both made from corn) as bulking agents is sold internationally by McNeil Nutritionals
under the Splenda brand name. In the United States and Canada, this blend is increasingly found in restaurants, including McDonald's
, Tim Hortons
and Starbucks
, in yellow packets, in contrast to the blue packets commonly used by aspartame and the pink packets used by those containing saccharin
sweeteners; in Canada, though, yellow packets are also associated with the SugarTwin brand of cyclamate
sweetener.
, which require sugar sprinkled on top to partially or fully melt and crystallize, substituting sucralose will not result in the same surface texture, crispness, or crystalline structure.
, Health Protection Branch of Health and Welfare Canada
, and Food Standards Australia-New Zealand (FSANZ). Sucralose is one of two artificial sweeteners ranked as "safe" by the consumer advocacy group Center for Science in the Public Interest
. The other is neotame
. According to the Canadian Diabetes Association
, the amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a person’s lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg/kg/day.
has little effect on sucralose, which is present in wastewater effluents at levels of several μg/l (ppb). There are no known ecotoxicological effects at such levels, but the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
warns there may be a continuous increase in levels if the compound is only slowly degraded in nature.
study found evidence that doses of Splenda of between 100 and 1000 mg/kg, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11 mg/kg (compare to the FDA Acceptable Daily Intake of 5 mg/kg), reduced the amount of good bacteria in the intestines of rats by up to 50%, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and affected the levels of P-glycoprotein
(P-gp). These effects have not been reported in humans. An expert panel, including scientists from Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, Columbia University, and Duke University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results". Another study, published in the Journal of Mutation Research, linked large doses of sucralose equivalent to 11,450 packets (136 g) per day in a person to DNA damage in mice.
Sugar substitute
A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually with less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners....
. The majority of ingested sucralose is not broken down by the body and therefore it is non-caloric. In the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, it is also known under the E number
E number
E numbers are number codes for food additives that have been assessed for use within the European Union . They are commonly found on food labels throughout the European Union. Safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority...
(additive code) E955. Sucralose is approximately 600 times as sweet
Sweetness
Sweetness is one of the five basic tastes and is almost universally regarded as a pleasurable experience. Foods rich in simple carbohydrates such as sugar are those most commonly associated with sweetness, although there are other natural and artificial compounds that are sweet at much lower...
as sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
(table sugar), twice as sweet as saccharin
Saccharin
Saccharin is an artificial sweetener. The basic substance, benzoic sulfilimine, has effectively no food energy and is much sweeter than sucrose, but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations...
, and 3.3 times as sweet as aspartame
Aspartame
Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951. Aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet; since 2009 it...
. It is stable under heat and over a broad range of pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
conditions. Therefore, it can be used in baking or in products that require a longer shelf life. The commercial success of sucralose-based products stems from its favorable comparison to other low-calorie sweeteners in terms of taste, stability, and safety. Common brand names of sucralose-based sweeteners are Splenda
Splenda
Splenda is the commercial name and registered trade mark of a sucralose-based artificial sweetener derived from sugar, owned by the British company Tate & Lyle. Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, in 1976...
, Sukrana, SucraPlus, Candys, Cukren and Nevella.
History
Sucralose was discovered in 1976 by scientists from Tate & LyleTate & Lyle
Tate & Lyle plc is a British-based multinational agribusiness. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index as of 20 June 2011...
, working with researchers Leslie Hough and Shashikant Phadnis at Queen Elizabeth College
Queen Elizabeth College
Queen Elizabeth College had its origins in the Ladies' Department of King's College London, England, opened in 1885. The first King's 'extension' lectures for ladies were held at Richmond in 1871, and from 1878 in Kensington, with chaperones in attendance.In 1881, the Council resolved 'to...
(now part of King's College London
King's College London
King's College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and a constituent college of the federal University of London. King's has a claim to being the third oldest university in England, having been founded by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington in 1829, and...
). While researching ways to use sucrose as a chemical intermediate in non-traditional areas, Phadnis was told to test a chlorinated sugar compound. Phadnis thought that Hough asked him to taste it, so he did. He found the compound to be exceptionally sweet.
Tate & Lyle patented the substance in 1976; as of 2008 the only remaining patents concern specific manufacturing processes.
Sucralose was first approved for use in Canada in 1991. Subsequent approvals came in Australia in 1993, in New Zealand in 1996, in the United States in 1998, and in the European Union in 2004. By 2008, it had been approved in over 80 countries, including Mexico, Brazil, China, India and Japan. In 2006 the Food and Drug Administration
Food and Drug Administration
The Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments...
(FDA) amended the regulations for foods to include sucralose as a non-nutritive sweetener in food. In May 2008, Fusion Nutraceuticals launched a generic product to the market, using Tate & Lyle patents.
Production
Tate & LyleTate & Lyle
Tate & Lyle plc is a British-based multinational agribusiness. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index as of 20 June 2011...
manufactures sucralose at a plant in Jurong, Singapore
Jurong
Jurong is the largest town in the western part of Singapore, consisting of 11 residential precincts, 14 industrial districts, 1 military zone and 1 Waterfront district. It resembles Woodlands, the largest town in the northern part of Singapore, which is smaller in size, has smaller industrial area...
. Formerly, it was produced at a plant in McIntosh, Alabama
McIntosh, Alabama
McIntosh is a town located in Washington County, Alabama, along U.S. Highway 43. It is 12½ miles south of Wagarville and north of Mobile. It was named for Alexander McIntosh, a prominent Creek chief of the nineteenth century...
. It is manufactured by the selective chlorination of sucrose (table sugar), which substitutes three of the hydroxyl groups
Hydroxyl
A hydroxyl is a chemical group containing an oxygen atom covalently bonded with a hydrogen atom. In inorganic chemistry, the hydroxyl group is known as the hydroxide ion, and scientists and reference works generally use these different terms though they refer to the same chemical structure in...
with chloride
Chloride
The chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine, a halogen, picks up one electron to form an anion Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and can also be called chlorides. The chloride ion, and its salts such as sodium chloride, are very soluble in water...
. This chlorination is achieved by selective protection
Protecting group
A protecting group or protective group is introduced into a molecule by chemical modification of a functional group in order to obtain chemoselectivity in a subsequent chemical reaction...
of the primary alcohol groups followed by acetylation
Acetylation
Acetylation describes a reaction that introduces an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound...
and then deprotection of the primary alcohol groups. Following an induced acetyl migration on one of the hydroxyl groups, the partially acetylated sugar is then chlorinated with a chlorinating agent such as phosphorus oxychloride, followed by removal of the acetyl groups to give sucralose.
Product uses
Sucralose can be found in more than 4,500 food and beverage products. It is used because it is a no-calorie sweetener, does not promote dental cavities, is safe for consumption by diabetics, and does not affect insulin levels. Sucralose is used as a replacement for, or in combination with, other artificial or natural sweeteners, such as aspartameAspartame
Aspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951. Aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet; since 2009 it...
, acesulfame potassium
Acesulfame potassium
Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K , and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number E950...
or high-fructose corn syrup. Sucralose is used in products such as candy
Candy
Candy, specifically sugar candy, is a confection made from a concentrated solution of sugar in water, to which flavorings and colorants are added...
, breakfast
Breakfast
Breakfast is the first meal taken after rising from a night's sleep, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the day's work...
bars and soft drink
Soft drink
A soft drink is a non-alcoholic beverage that typically contains water , a sweetener, and a flavoring agent...
s. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of much higher calorie corn syrup-based additives. Sucralose mixed with maltodextrin
Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive. It is produced from starch by partial hydrolysis and is usually found as a creamy-white hygroscopic spraydried powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose, and might be either moderately sweet or...
or dextrose
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
(both made from corn) as bulking agents is sold internationally by McNeil Nutritionals
McNeil Nutritionals
McNeil Nutritionals, LLC is a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson, and sells a range of products including Viactiv and the branded sucralose sweetener Splenda....
under the Splenda brand name. In the United States and Canada, this blend is increasingly found in restaurants, including McDonald's
McDonald's
McDonald's Corporation is the world's largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants, serving around 64 million customers daily in 119 countries. Headquartered in the United States, the company began in 1940 as a barbecue restaurant operated by the eponymous Richard and Maurice McDonald; in 1948...
, Tim Hortons
Tim Hortons
Tim Hortons Inc. is a Canadian fast casual restaurant known for its coffee and doughnuts. It is also Canada's largest fast food service with over 3000 stores nationwide. It was founded in 1964 in Hamilton, Ontario, by Canadian hockey player Tim Horton and Jim Charade, after an initial venture in...
and Starbucks
Starbucks
Starbucks Corporation is an international coffee and coffeehouse chain based in Seattle, Washington. Starbucks is the largest coffeehouse company in the world, with 17,009 stores in 55 countries, including over 11,000 in the United States, over 1,000 in Canada, over 700 in the United Kingdom, and...
, in yellow packets, in contrast to the blue packets commonly used by aspartame and the pink packets used by those containing saccharin
Saccharin
Saccharin is an artificial sweetener. The basic substance, benzoic sulfilimine, has effectively no food energy and is much sweeter than sucrose, but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations...
sweeteners; in Canada, though, yellow packets are also associated with the SugarTwin brand of cyclamate
Cyclamate
Sodium cyclamate is an artificial sweetener. It is 30–50 times sweeter than sugar , making it the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners. Some people find it to have an unpleasant aftertaste, but, in general, less so than saccharin or acesulfame potassium...
sweetener.
Cooking
Sucralose is a highly heat-stable artificial sweetener, allowing it to be used in many recipes with little or no sugar. Sucralose is available in a granulated form that allows for same-volume substitution with sugar. This mix of granulated sucralose includes fillers, all of which rapidly dissolve in liquids. While the granulated sucralose provides apparent volume-for-volume sweetness, the texture in baked products may be noticeably different. Sucralose is not hygroscopic, meaning it does not attract moisture, which can lead to baked goods that are noticeably drier and manifesting a less dense texture than those made with sucrose. Unlike sucrose, which melts when baked at high temperatures, sucralose maintains its granular structure when subjected to dry, high heat (e.g., in a 350 °F or 176.7 °C oven). Thus, in some baking recipes, such as crème brûléeCrème brûlée
Crème brûlée , also known as burnt cream, crema catalana, or Trinity cream is a dessert consisting of a rich custard base topped with a contrasting layer of hard caramel...
, which require sugar sprinkled on top to partially or fully melt and crystallize, substituting sucralose will not result in the same surface texture, crispness, or crystalline structure.
Packaging and storage
Pure sucralose is sold in bulk, but not in quantities suitable for individual use, although some highly concentrated sucralose-water blends are available online, using 1/4 teaspoon per 1 cup of sweetness or roughly 1 part sucralose to 2 parts water. Pure, dry sucralose undergoes some decomposition at elevated temperatures. In solution or blended with maltodextrin, it is slightly more stable. Most products that contain sucralose add fillers and additional sweetener to bring the product to the approximate volume and texture of an equivalent amount of sugar.Effect on caloric content
Though sucralose itself contains no calories, products that contain fillers, such as maltodextrin and/or dextrose, add approximately 2-4 Calories per teaspoon or individual packet, depending on the product, the fillers used, brand, and the intended use of the product. The FDA allows for any product containing less than 5 Calories per serving to be labeled as "zero-calorie".Health, safety, and regulation
Sucralose has been accepted by several national and international food safety regulatory bodies, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Joint Food and Agriculture Organization / World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives, the European Union's Scientific Committee on FoodScientific Committee on Food
The EU Scientific Committee on Food , established in 1974, is the main committee providing the European Commission with scientific advice on food safety.It is also known as the: EC Scientific Committee on Food.-Purpose and scope:...
, Health Protection Branch of Health and Welfare Canada
Health and Welfare Canada
Health and Welfare Canada is a former Canadian federal department established in 1944 and split into two separate departments, Health Canada and Human Resources and Labour Canada, in June 1993 by Prime Minister Kim Campbell...
, and Food Standards Australia-New Zealand (FSANZ). Sucralose is one of two artificial sweeteners ranked as "safe" by the consumer advocacy group Center for Science in the Public Interest
Center for Science in the Public Interest
Center for Science in the Public Interest is a Washington, D.C.-based non-profit watchdog and consumer advocacy group focusing on nutritional education and awareness.-History and funding:...
. The other is neotame
Neotame
Neotame is an artificial sweetener made by NutraSweet that is between 7,000 and 13,000 times sweeter than sucrose . In the European Union, it is known by the E number E961...
. According to the Canadian Diabetes Association
Canadian Diabetes Association
The Canadian Diabetes Association is an organization based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Its mission is to lead the fight against diabetes mellitus by helping Canadians with diabetes live healthy lives while work is continued to find a cure...
, the amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a person’s lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 mg/kg/day.
"In determining the safety of sucralose, the FDA reviewed data from more than 110 studies in humans and animals. Many of the studies were designed to identify possible toxic effects, including carcinogenic, reproductive, and neurological effects. No such effects were found, and FDA's approval is based on the finding that sucralose is safe for human consumption." For example, McNeil Nutritional LLC studies submitted as part of its U.S. FDA Food Additive Petition 7A3987 indicated that "in the 2-year rodent bioassays...there was no evidence of carcinogenic activity for either sucralose or its hydrolysis products..."
Safety studies
Results from over 100 animal and clinical studies in the FDA approval process unanimously indicated a lack of risk associated with sucralose intake. However, some adverse effects were seen at doses that significantly exceeded the estimated daily intake (EDI), which is 1.1 mg/kg/day. When the EDI is compared to the intake at which adverse effects are seen, known as the highest no adverse effects limit (HNEL), at 1500 mg/kg/day, there is a large margin of safety. The bulk of sucralose ingested is not absorbed by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and is directly excreted in the feces, while 11-27% of it is absorbed. The amount absorbed from the GI tract is largely removed from the blood stream by the kidneys and eliminated in the urine, with 20-30% of the absorbed sucralose being metabolized.Environmental effects
According to one study, sucralose is digestible by a number of microorganisms and is broken down once released into the environment. However, measurements by the Swedish Environmental Research Institute have shown that wastewater treatmentWastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment may refer to:* Sewage treatment* Industrial wastewater treatment...
has little effect on sucralose, which is present in wastewater effluents at levels of several μg/l (ppb). There are no known ecotoxicological effects at such levels, but the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is a Swedish government agency responsible for proposing and implementing environmental policies...
warns there may be a continuous increase in levels if the compound is only slowly degraded in nature.
Other potential effects
A Duke UniversityDuke University
Duke University is a private research university located in Durham, North Carolina, United States. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present day town of Trinity in 1838, the school moved to Durham in 1892. In 1924, tobacco industrialist James B...
study found evidence that doses of Splenda of between 100 and 1000 mg/kg, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11 mg/kg (compare to the FDA Acceptable Daily Intake of 5 mg/kg), reduced the amount of good bacteria in the intestines of rats by up to 50%, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and affected the levels of P-glycoprotein
P-glycoprotein
P-glycoprotein 1 also known as multidrug resistance protein 1 or ATP-binding cassette sub-family B member 1 or cluster of differentiation 243 is a glycoprotein that in humans is encoded by the ABCB1 gene...
(P-gp). These effects have not been reported in humans. An expert panel, including scientists from Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, Columbia University, and Duke University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results". Another study, published in the Journal of Mutation Research, linked large doses of sucralose equivalent to 11,450 packets (136 g) per day in a person to DNA damage in mice.
See also
- Acesulfame potassiumAcesulfame potassiumAcesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K , and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number E950...
- AspartameAspartameAspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951. Aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet; since 2009 it...
- CyclamateCyclamateSodium cyclamate is an artificial sweetener. It is 30–50 times sweeter than sugar , making it the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners. Some people find it to have an unpleasant aftertaste, but, in general, less so than saccharin or acesulfame potassium...
- ErythritolErythritolErythritol is a sugar alcohol that has been approved for use as a food additive in the United States and throughout much of the world. It was discovered in 1848 by British chemist John Stenhouse. It occurs naturally in some fruits and fermented foods...
- SaccharinSaccharinSaccharin is an artificial sweetener. The basic substance, benzoic sulfilimine, has effectively no food energy and is much sweeter than sucrose, but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations...
- SplendaSplendaSplenda is the commercial name and registered trade mark of a sucralose-based artificial sweetener derived from sugar, owned by the British company Tate & Lyle. Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, in 1976...
- SteviaSteviaStevia is a genus of about 240 species of herbs and shrubs in the sunflower family , native to subtropical and tropical regions from western North America to South America. The species Stevia rebaudiana, commonly known as sweetleaf, sweet leaf, sugarleaf, or simply stevia, is widely grown for its...
- Sugar substituteSugar substituteA sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually with less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners....
- TagatoseTagatoseTagatose is a functional sweetener. It is a naturally occurring monosaccharide, specifically a hexose. It is often found in dairy products, and is very similar in texture to sucrose and is 92% as sweet, but with only 38% of the calories....
- TruviaTruviaTruvia is a stevia-based sugar substitute developed jointly by Coca-Cola and Cargill. It is currently distributed and marketed by Cargill as a tabletop sweetener and as a food ingredient. Because it comes from the stevia plant, Cargill classifies it as a natural sweetener in addition to being a...
- XylitolXylitolXylitol is a sugar alcohol sweetener used as a naturally occurring sugar substitute. It is found in the fibers of many fruits and vegetables, and can be extracted from various berries, oats, and mushrooms, as well as fibrous material such as corn husks and sugar cane bagasse, and birch...