Xylitol
Encyclopedia
Xylitol is a sugar alcohol
sweetener used as a naturally occurring sugar substitute
. It is found in the fiber
s of many fruit
s and vegetable
s, and can be extracted from various berries
, oat
s, and mushroom
s, as well as fibrous material such as corn husks and sugar cane bagasse
, and birch. Xylitol is roughly as sweet as sucrose
with only two-thirds the food energy
.
As with other sugar alcohols, with the exception of erythritol
, consumption in excess of one's laxation threshold (the amount of sweetener that can be consumed before abdominal discomfort sets in) can result in temporary gastrointestinal side effects, such as bloating
, flatulence
, and diarrhea
. Adaptation, an increase of the laxation threshold, occurs with regular intake. Xylitol has a lower laxation threshold than some sugar alcohols, but is more easily tolerated than others such as mannitol
and sorbitol
.
Xylitol is an organic compound
with the formula (CHOH)3(CH2OH)2. This achiral
species is one of four isomer
s of pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol.
as a safe sweetener for people with diabetes that would not impact insulin
levels. Its dental significance was researched in Finland in the early 1970s, when scientists at Turku University
showed it had significant dental benefits. Today, using hardwood
or maize
sources, the largest manufacturer globally is the Danish company Danisco
, with several other suppliers from China
. Xylitol is produced by hydrogenation
of xylose
, which converts the sugar (an aldehyde
) into a primary alcohol.
s of xylitol contain 1405 kilojoules. One teaspoon (5 g) of xylitol contains 9.6 kilocalories (Cal), as compared to one teaspoon of sugar
, which has 15 Cal. Xylitol has virtually no aftertaste
, and is advertised as "safe for diabetics and individuals with hyperglycemia
." This tolerance is attributed to the lower impact of xylitol on a person's blood sugar
, compared to that of regular sugars and also has a very low glycemic index
of 13 (glucose has a GI of 100).
s and pastille
s. Other applications include oral hygiene products, such as toothpaste
, fluoride tablets and mouthwash
es. The pharmaceutical industry uses xylitol as a sweetener in its products.
prevention, showing superior performance to other polyol
s (polyalcohols).
This is because the structure of xylitol contains a tridentate ligand, (H-C-OH)3 that can rearrange with polyvalent cations like Ca++. This interaction allows for Ca++ to be transported through the gut wall barrier and through saliva may remineralize enamel before dental caries forms.
Early studies from Finland in the 1970s found that a group chewing sucrose gum had 2.92 decayed, missing, or filled (dmf) teeth compared to 1.04 in the group chewing xylitol gums. Recent research confirms a plaque
-reducing effect and suggests the compound, having some chemical properties similar to sucrose
, attracts and then "starves" harmful micro-organisms, allowing the mouth to remineralize damaged teeth with less interruption. (However, this same effect also interferes with yeast
micro-organisms and others, so xylitol is inappropriate for making yeast-based bread
, for instance.) This is because cariogenic bacteria prefer fermentable six-carbon sugars, or disacharrides such as sucrose, as opposed to the nonfermentable xylitol, whose antimicrobial properties then "starve" the bacteria, reducing their growth and reproduction. Most of these studies suggest that at least 6 grams of xylitol per day is needed for dental efficacy; for most chewing gum or breath mints this would require 12 pieces per day (op cit).
Xylitol is specific in its inhibition of the mutans streptococci
group, bacteria
that are significant contributors to tooth decay. Xylitol inhibits mutans streptococci in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of fructose
.
Xylitol also inhibits the growth of Streptococcus pneumoniae, as well as the attachment of Haemophilus influenzae on the nasopharyngeal cells, making xylitol nose spray a very marketable product. Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44 grams are ineffective, and doses above 10.32 grams show no additional benefit.
Saliva containing xylitol is more alkali
ne than saliva which contains other sugar products. After taking xylitol products, the concentration of basic amino acids in saliva may rise. When saliva is alkaline (i.e., its pH
is above 7), calcium and phosphate salts in saliva start to precipitate into those parts of enamel where they are lacking.
Xylitol-based products are allowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
to make the medical claim that they do not promote dental cavities.
A recent study demonstrated, as a water additive for cats, xylitol was effective in reducing plaque and calculus
accumulation. However, there is evidence xylitol may be dangerous to dogs.
alternative to table sugar. Absorbed more slowly than sugar, it does not contribute to high blood sugar
levels or the resulting hyperglycemia
caused by insufficient insulin
response. This characteristic has also proven beneficial for people suffering from metabolic syndrome
, a common disorder that includes insulin resistance, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and an increased risk for blood clots.
. A group of Finnish researchers has found dietary xylitol prevents weakening of bone
s in laboratory rats, and actually improves bone density.
); the act of chewing and swallowing assists with the disposal of earwax
and clearing the middle ear
, while the presence of xylitol prevents the growth of bacteria in the eustachian tubes (auditory or pharyngotympanic tubes) which connect the nose and ear. When bacteria enter the body, they adhere to the tissues using a variety of sugar complexes. The open nature of xylitol and its ability to form many different sugar-like structures appears to interfere with the ability of many bacteria to adhere. In a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, saline solutions of xylitol significantly reduced the number of nasal coagulase-negative Staphylococcus bacteria. The researchers attributed the benefits to the increased effectiveness of endogenous
(naturally present in the body) antimicrobial factors. In a small clinical trial nasally administered xylitol reduced ear complaints in children previously having chronic complaints, on the order of almost one a month, by more than 92%. The author also reported beneficial effects on asthma with nasal administration.
.
yeast; in contrast, galactose
, glucose
, and sucrose
may increase proliferation.
effect because sugar alcohols are not fully broken down during digestion; albeit one-tenth the strength of sorbitol
. The effect depends upon the individual. In one study of 13 children, four experienced diarrhea when consuming over 65 grams per day. Studies have reported adaptation occurs after several weeks of consumption.
s that have ingested foods containing high levels of xylitol (greater than 100 milligrams of xylitol consumed per kilogram of bodyweight) have presented with low blood sugar (hypoglycemia
), which can be life-threatening. Low blood sugar can result in a loss of coordination, depression, collapse and seizures in as soon as 30 minutes. Intake of very high doses of xylitol (greater than 500 – 1000 mg/kg bwt) has also been implicated in liver failure in dogs, which can be fatal. These are points of controversy, however, as earlier World Health Organization studies using much higher doses on dogs for long periods showed no ill effect. A study published in the Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics involved two groups of eight Pekingese
dogs fed either 1 or 4 g/kg of xylitol. In addition to developing hypoglycemia, all of the dogs developed elevated levels of liver enzymes associated with liver damage. The dogs also developed reduced serum phosphorus and potassium, and increased serum calcium.
Sugar alcohol
A sugar alcohol is a hydrogenated form of carbohydrate, whose carbonyl group has been reduced to a primary or secondary hydroxyl group . Sugar alcohols have the general formula Hn+1H, whereas sugars have HnHCO...
sweetener used as a naturally occurring sugar substitute
Sugar substitute
A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually with less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners....
. It is found in the fiber
Fiber
Fiber is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together....
s of many fruit
Fruit
In broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
s and vegetable
Vegetable
The noun vegetable usually means an edible plant or part of a plant other than a sweet fruit or seed. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant....
s, and can be extracted from various berries
Berry
The botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
, oat
Oat
The common oat is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name . While oats are suitable for human consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats, one of the most common uses is as livestock feed...
s, and mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s, as well as fibrous material such as corn husks and sugar cane bagasse
Bagasse
Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice. It is currently used as a biofuel and as a renewable resource in the manufacture of pulp and paper products and building materials....
, and birch. Xylitol is roughly as sweet as sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
with only two-thirds the food energy
Food energy
Food energy is the amount of energy obtained from food that is available through cellular respiration.Food energy is expressed in food calories or kilojoules...
.
As with other sugar alcohols, with the exception of erythritol
Erythritol
Erythritol is a sugar alcohol that has been approved for use as a food additive in the United States and throughout much of the world. It was discovered in 1848 by British chemist John Stenhouse. It occurs naturally in some fruits and fermented foods...
, consumption in excess of one's laxation threshold (the amount of sweetener that can be consumed before abdominal discomfort sets in) can result in temporary gastrointestinal side effects, such as bloating
Bloating
Bloating is any abnormal general swelling, or increase in diameter of the abdominal area. As a symptom, the patient feels a full and tight abdomen, which may cause abdominal pain sometimes accompanied by increased borborygmus or more seriously the total lack of borborygmus.-Symptoms:The most common...
, flatulence
Flatulence
Flatulence is the expulsion through the rectum of a mixture of gases that are byproducts of the digestion process of mammals and other animals. The medical term for the mixture of gases is flatus, informally known as a fart, or simply gas...
, and diarrhea
Diarrhea
Diarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
. Adaptation, an increase of the laxation threshold, occurs with regular intake. Xylitol has a lower laxation threshold than some sugar alcohols, but is more easily tolerated than others such as mannitol
Mannitol
Mannitol is a white, crystalline organic compound with the formula . This polyol is used as an osmotic diuretic agent and a weak renal vasodilator...
and sorbitol
Sorbitol
Sorbitol, also known as glucitol, Sorbogem® and Sorbo®, is a sugar alcohol that the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, changing the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Sorbitol is found in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes...
.
Xylitol is an organic compound
Organic compound
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides, as well as the...
with the formula (CHOH)3(CH2OH)2. This achiral
Chirality (chemistry)
A chiral molecule is a type of molecule that lacks an internal plane of symmetry and thus has a non-superimposable mirror image. The feature that is most often the cause of chirality in molecules is the presence of an asymmetric carbon atom....
species is one of four isomer
Isomer
In chemistry, isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties, unless they also have the same functional groups. There are many different classes of isomers, like stereoisomers, enantiomers, geometrical...
s of pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol.
Production of xylitol
Xylitol was discovered almost simultaneously by German and French chemists in the late 19th century, and was first popularized in EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
as a safe sweetener for people with diabetes that would not impact insulin
Insulin
Insulin is a hormone central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle....
levels. Its dental significance was researched in Finland in the early 1970s, when scientists at Turku University
Turku University
Turku University may refer to:* Åbo Akademi University* The Royal Academy of Turku* Turku School of Economics* Turku University of Applied Sciences* The University of Turku...
showed it had significant dental benefits. Today, using hardwood
Hardwood
Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . It may also be used for those trees themselves: these are usually broad-leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen.Hardwood contrasts with softwood...
or maize
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
sources, the largest manufacturer globally is the Danish company Danisco
Danisco
Danisco A/S is a Danish bio-based company with activities in food production, enzymes and other bioproducts as well as a wide variety of pharmaceutical grade excipients. It was formed in 1989 from the largest Danish industrial merger ever of the two old C.F...
, with several other suppliers from China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. Xylitol is produced by hydrogenation
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation, to treat with hydrogen, also a form of chemical reduction, is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst. The process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically...
of xylose
Xylose
Xylose is a sugar first isolated from wood, and named for it. Xylose is classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type, which means that it contains five carbon atoms and includes an aldehyde functional group. It is the precursor to hemicellulose, one of the main constituents of biomass...
, which converts the sugar (an aldehyde
Aldehyde
An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a formyl group. This functional group, with the structure R-CHO, consists of a carbonyl center bonded to hydrogen and an R group....
) into a primary alcohol.
Properties
100 gramGram
The gram is a metric system unit of mass....
s of xylitol contain 1405 kilojoules. One teaspoon (5 g) of xylitol contains 9.6 kilocalories (Cal), as compared to one teaspoon of sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
, which has 15 Cal. Xylitol has virtually no aftertaste
Aftertaste
Aftertaste is the taste intensity of a food or beverage that is perceived immediately after that food or beverage is removed from the mouth. The aftertastes of different foods and beverages can vary by intensity and over time, but the unifying feature of aftertaste is that it is perceived after a...
, and is advertised as "safe for diabetics and individuals with hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia or Hyperglycæmia, or high blood sugar, is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a glucose level higher than 13.5mmol/l , but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 15-20 mmol/l...
." This tolerance is attributed to the lower impact of xylitol on a person's blood sugar
Blood sugar
The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. Normally in mammals, the body maintains the blood glucose level at a reference range between about 3.6 and 5.8 mM , or 64.8 and 104.4 mg/dL...
, compared to that of regular sugars and also has a very low glycemic index
Glycemic index
The glycemic index, glycaemic index, or GI is a measure of the effects of carbohydrates on blood sugar levels. Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream have a high GI; carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more...
of 13 (glucose has a GI of 100).
Dietary use worldwide
Xylitol is used around the world, mainly as a sweetener in chewing gumChewing gum
Chewing gum is a type of gum traditionally made of chicle, a natural latex product, or synthetic rubber known as polyisobutylene. For economical and quality reasons, many modern chewing gums use rubber instead of chicle...
s and pastille
Pastille
Pastilles are a type of candy or medicinal pill made of a thick liquid that has been solidified and is meant to be consumed by light chewing and allowing it to dissolve in the mouth...
s. Other applications include oral hygiene products, such as toothpaste
Toothpaste
Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush as an accessory to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it serves as an abrasive that aids in removing the dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing...
, fluoride tablets and mouthwash
Mouthwash
Mouthwash or mouth rinse is a product used to enhance oral hygiene. Some manufacturers of mouthwash claim that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque causing cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth decay...
es. The pharmaceutical industry uses xylitol as a sweetener in its products.
Dental care
Xylitol is a “tooth-friendly”, nonfermentable sugar alcohol. A systematic review study on the efficacy of xylitol has indicated dental health benefits in cariesDental caries
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or a cavity, is an irreversible infection usually bacterial in origin that causes demineralization of the hard tissues and destruction of the organic matter of the tooth, usually by production of acid by hydrolysis of the food debris accumulated on the...
prevention, showing superior performance to other polyol
Polyol
A polyol is an alcohol containing multiple hydroxyl groups. In two technological disciplines the term "polyol" has a special meaning: food science and polymer chemistry.- Polyols in food science :...
s (polyalcohols).
This is because the structure of xylitol contains a tridentate ligand, (H-C-OH)3 that can rearrange with polyvalent cations like Ca++. This interaction allows for Ca++ to be transported through the gut wall barrier and through saliva may remineralize enamel before dental caries forms.
Early studies from Finland in the 1970s found that a group chewing sucrose gum had 2.92 decayed, missing, or filled (dmf) teeth compared to 1.04 in the group chewing xylitol gums. Recent research confirms a plaque
Dental plaque
Dental plaque is a biofilm, usually a pale yellow, that develops naturally on the teeth. Like any biofilm, dental plaque is formed by colonizing bacteria trying to attach themselves to a smooth surface...
-reducing effect and suggests the compound, having some chemical properties similar to sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
, attracts and then "starves" harmful micro-organisms, allowing the mouth to remineralize damaged teeth with less interruption. (However, this same effect also interferes with yeast
Yeast
Yeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with 1,500 species currently described estimated to be only 1% of all fungal species. Most reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by an asymmetric division process called budding...
micro-organisms and others, so xylitol is inappropriate for making yeast-based bread
Bread
Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking a dough of flour and water and often additional ingredients. Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed , fried , or baked on an unoiled frying pan . It may be leavened or unleavened...
, for instance.) This is because cariogenic bacteria prefer fermentable six-carbon sugars, or disacharrides such as sucrose, as opposed to the nonfermentable xylitol, whose antimicrobial properties then "starve" the bacteria, reducing their growth and reproduction. Most of these studies suggest that at least 6 grams of xylitol per day is needed for dental efficacy; for most chewing gum or breath mints this would require 12 pieces per day (op cit).
Xylitol is specific in its inhibition of the mutans streptococci
Streptococcus mutans
Streptococcus mutans is a facultatively aerobic, Gram-positive coccus-shaped bacterium commonly found in the human oral cavity and is a significant contributor to tooth decay.The microbe was first described by J Kilian Clarke in 1924.-Introduction:...
group, bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
that are significant contributors to tooth decay. Xylitol inhibits mutans streptococci in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of fructose
Fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple monosaccharide found in many plants. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847...
.
Xylitol also inhibits the growth of Streptococcus pneumoniae, as well as the attachment of Haemophilus influenzae on the nasopharyngeal cells, making xylitol nose spray a very marketable product. Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44 grams are ineffective, and doses above 10.32 grams show no additional benefit.
Saliva containing xylitol is more alkali
Alkali
In chemistry, an alkali is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal element. Some authors also define an alkali as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7. The adjective alkaline is commonly used in English as a synonym for base,...
ne than saliva which contains other sugar products. After taking xylitol products, the concentration of basic amino acids in saliva may rise. When saliva is alkaline (i.e., its pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
is above 7), calcium and phosphate salts in saliva start to precipitate into those parts of enamel where they are lacking.
Xylitol-based products are allowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Food and Drug Administration
The Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments...
to make the medical claim that they do not promote dental cavities.
A recent study demonstrated, as a water additive for cats, xylitol was effective in reducing plaque and calculus
Calculus (dental)
In dentistry, calculus or tartar is a form of hardened dental plaque. It is caused by the continual accumulation of minerals from saliva on plaque on the teeth...
accumulation. However, there is evidence xylitol may be dangerous to dogs.
Diabetes
Possessing approximately 40% less food energy, xylitol is a low-calorieCalorie
The calorie is a pre-SI metric unit of energy. It was first defined by Nicolas Clément in 1824 as a unit of heat, entering French and English dictionaries between 1841 and 1867. In most fields its use is archaic, having been replaced by the SI unit of energy, the joule...
alternative to table sugar. Absorbed more slowly than sugar, it does not contribute to high blood sugar
Blood sugar
The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. Normally in mammals, the body maintains the blood glucose level at a reference range between about 3.6 and 5.8 mM , or 64.8 and 104.4 mg/dL...
levels or the resulting hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia or Hyperglycæmia, or high blood sugar, is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a glucose level higher than 13.5mmol/l , but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 15-20 mmol/l...
caused by insufficient insulin
Insulin
Insulin is a hormone central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle....
response. This characteristic has also proven beneficial for people suffering from metabolic syndrome
Metabolic syndrome
Metabolic syndrome is a combination of medical disorders that, when occurring together, increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It affects one in five people in the United States and prevalence increases with age...
, a common disorder that includes insulin resistance, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and an increased risk for blood clots.
Osteoporosis
Xylitol also has potential as a treatment for osteoporosisOsteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is deteriorating, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone is altered...
. A group of Finnish researchers has found dietary xylitol prevents weakening of bone
Bone
Bones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
s in laboratory rats, and actually improves bone density.
Ear and upper respiratory infections
Studies have shown xylitol chewing gum can help prevent ear infections (acute otitis mediaOtitis media
Otitis media is inflammation of the middle ear, or a middle ear infection.It occurs in the area between the tympanic membrane and the inner ear, including a duct known as the eustachian tube. It is one of the two categories of ear inflammation that can underlie what is commonly called an earache,...
); the act of chewing and swallowing assists with the disposal of earwax
Earwax
Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a yellowish waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals. It protects the skin of the human ear canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication, and also provides some protection from bacteria, fungi, insects and water...
and clearing the middle ear
Middle ear
The middle ear is the portion of the ear internal to the eardrum, and external to the oval window of the cochlea. The mammalian middle ear contains three ossicles, which couple vibration of the eardrum into waves in the fluid and membranes of the inner ear. The hollow space of the middle ear has...
, while the presence of xylitol prevents the growth of bacteria in the eustachian tubes (auditory or pharyngotympanic tubes) which connect the nose and ear. When bacteria enter the body, they adhere to the tissues using a variety of sugar complexes. The open nature of xylitol and its ability to form many different sugar-like structures appears to interfere with the ability of many bacteria to adhere. In a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, saline solutions of xylitol significantly reduced the number of nasal coagulase-negative Staphylococcus bacteria. The researchers attributed the benefits to the increased effectiveness of endogenous
Endogenous
Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell. Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates...
(naturally present in the body) antimicrobial factors. In a small clinical trial nasally administered xylitol reduced ear complaints in children previously having chronic complaints, on the order of almost one a month, by more than 92%. The author also reported beneficial effects on asthma with nasal administration.
Infection
In rats, xylitol has been found to increase the activity of neutrophils, the white blood cells involved in fighting many bacteria. This effect seems to be quite broad, acting even in cases such as general sepsisSepsis
Sepsis is a potentially deadly medical condition that is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state and the presence of a known or suspected infection. The body may develop this inflammatory response by the immune system to microbes in the blood, urine, lungs, skin, or other tissues...
.
Candida yeast
A recent report suggests consumption of xylitol may help control oral infections of CandidaCandida (genus)
Candida is a genus of yeasts. Many species are harmless commensals or endosymbionts of animal hosts including humans, but other species, or harmless species in the wrong location, can cause disease. Candida albicans can cause infections in humans and other animals, especially in immunocompromised...
yeast; in contrast, galactose
Galactose
Galactose , sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a type of sugar that is less sweet than glucose. It is a C-4 epimer of glucose....
, glucose
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
, and sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
may increase proliferation.
Safety
Xylitol has no known toxicity in humans. In one study, the participants consumed a diet containing a monthly average of 1.5 kg of xylitol with a maximum daily intake of 430 g with no apparent ill effects. Like most sugar alcohols, it has a laxativeLaxative
Laxatives are foods, compounds, or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen the stool, most often taken to treat constipation. Certain stimulant, lubricant, and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and/or bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas under...
effect because sugar alcohols are not fully broken down during digestion; albeit one-tenth the strength of sorbitol
Sorbitol
Sorbitol, also known as glucitol, Sorbogem® and Sorbo®, is a sugar alcohol that the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, changing the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Sorbitol is found in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes...
. The effect depends upon the individual. In one study of 13 children, four experienced diarrhea when consuming over 65 grams per day. Studies have reported adaptation occurs after several weeks of consumption.
Dogs
DogDog
The domestic dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in...
s that have ingested foods containing high levels of xylitol (greater than 100 milligrams of xylitol consumed per kilogram of bodyweight) have presented with low blood sugar (hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia or hypoglycæmia is the medical term for a state produced by a lower than normal level of blood glucose. The term literally means "under-sweet blood"...
), which can be life-threatening. Low blood sugar can result in a loss of coordination, depression, collapse and seizures in as soon as 30 minutes. Intake of very high doses of xylitol (greater than 500 – 1000 mg/kg bwt) has also been implicated in liver failure in dogs, which can be fatal. These are points of controversy, however, as earlier World Health Organization studies using much higher doses on dogs for long periods showed no ill effect. A study published in the Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics involved two groups of eight Pekingese
Pekingese
The Pekingese, or "Peke" is an ancient breed of toy dog, originating in China. The breed was favored by the Chinese Imperial court, and its name refers to the city of Beijing where the Forbidden City resides...
dogs fed either 1 or 4 g/kg of xylitol. In addition to developing hypoglycemia, all of the dogs developed elevated levels of liver enzymes associated with liver damage. The dogs also developed reduced serum phosphorus and potassium, and increased serum calcium.
See also
- Other sugar alcohols: mannitolMannitolMannitol is a white, crystalline organic compound with the formula . This polyol is used as an osmotic diuretic agent and a weak renal vasodilator...
, sorbitolSorbitolSorbitol, also known as glucitol, Sorbogem® and Sorbo®, is a sugar alcohol that the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, changing the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Sorbitol is found in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes...
, erythritolErythritolErythritol is a sugar alcohol that has been approved for use as a food additive in the United States and throughout much of the world. It was discovered in 1848 by British chemist John Stenhouse. It occurs naturally in some fruits and fermented foods...
, maltitolMaltitolMaltitol is a sugar alcohol used as a sugar substitute. It has 75-90% of the sweetness of sucrose and nearly identical properties, except for browning. It is used to replace table sugar because it has fewer calories, does not promote tooth decay, and has a somewhat lesser effect on blood glucose...
, lactitolLactitolLactitol is a sugar alcohol used as a replacement bulk sweetener for low calorie foods with approximately 40% of the sweetness of sugar. Lactitol is produced by two manufacturers, Danisco and Purac Biochem.-Applications:...
, ribitolRibitolRibitol or adonitol is a crystalline pentose alcohol formed by the reduction of ribose. It occurs naturally in the plant Adonis vernalis, as well as in the cell walls of Gram positive bacteria . It also contributes to the chemical structure of riboflavin.-External links:**... - Herbal sweetener: steviaSteviaStevia is a genus of about 240 species of herbs and shrubs in the sunflower family , native to subtropical and tropical regions from western North America to South America. The species Stevia rebaudiana, commonly known as sweetleaf, sweet leaf, sugarleaf, or simply stevia, is widely grown for its...
- Artificial sweeteners: aspartameAspartameAspartame is an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is codified as E951. Aspartame is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide. It was first sold under the brand name NutraSweet; since 2009 it...
, sucraloseSucraloseSucralose is an artificial sweetener. The majority of ingested sucralose is not broken down by the body and therefore it is non-caloric. In the European Union, it is also known under the E number E955. Sucralose is approximately 600 times as sweet as sucrose , twice as sweet as saccharin, and 3.3... - L-xylulose reductaseL-xylulose reductaseL-xylulose reductase is an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of xylulose, converting it into xylitol....
- MouthwashMouthwashMouthwash or mouth rinse is a product used to enhance oral hygiene. Some manufacturers of mouthwash claim that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque causing cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth decay...
- Xylonic acidXylonic acidXylonic acid is a sugar acid that can be obtained by mild oxidation of xylose....