Yeast
Encyclopedia
Yeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms classified in the kingdom
Fungi
, with 1,500 species
currently described estimated to be only 1% of all fungal species. Most reproduce asexual
ly by mitosis
, and many do so by an asymmetric division process called budding
. Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular through the formation of a string of connected budding cells known as pseudohyphae
, or false hyphae
, as seen in most mold
s. Yeast size can vary greatly depending on the species, typically measuring 3–4 µm in diameter
, although some yeasts can reach over 40 µm.
By fermentation
the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae
converts carbohydrates to carbon dioxide
and alcohol
s - for thousands of years the carbon dioxide has been used in baking
and the alcohol in alcoholic beverages. It is also extremely important as a model organism
in modern cell biology
research, and is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have used it to gather information about the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology. Other species of yeast, such as Candida albicans
, are opportunistic pathogens and can cause infections in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cell
s, and produce ethanol for the biofuel
industry.
Yeasts do not form a single taxonomic
or phylogenetic
grouping. The term "yeast" is often taken as a synonym
for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in two separate phyla
, the Ascomycota
and the Basidiomycota
. The budding yeasts ("true yeasts") are classified in the order
Saccharomycetales
.
gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning boil, foam, or bubble. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. People have used yeast for fermentation and baking throughout history. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeasted bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, the Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek
first microscopically
observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms
, but rather globular structures. In 1857, French
microbiologist Louis Pasteur
proved in the paper "Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique" that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth
could be increased, but fermentation was inhibited – an observation later called the "Pasteur effect
".
By the late 18th century, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, so called top fermenting yeast, and S. carlsbergensis, bottom fermenting yeast. S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread making since 1780; while around 1800, the Germans started producing S. cerevisiae in the form of cream. In 1825 a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the filter press
in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a manufacturing process to create granulated yeast, a technique that was used until the first World War. In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively until commercial yeast was marketed at the Centennial Exposition
in 1876 in Philadelphia, where Charles L. Fleischmann
exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread.
s, as they use organic compound
s as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose
sugars, such as glucose
and fructose
, or disaccharides such as sucrose
and maltose
. Some species can metabolize pentose
sugars like ribose, alcohol
s, and organic acid
s. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration
(obligate aerobe
s), or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production (facultative anaerobes). Unlike bacteria
, there are no known yeast species that grow only anaerobically (obligate anaerobe
s). Yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment.
Yeasts vary in what temperature range they grow best. For example, Leucosporidium frigidum grows at -2 C, Saccharomyces telluris at 5 to 35 °C (41 to 95 F) and Candida slooffi at 28 to 45 °C (82.4 to 113 F). The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time.
Yeasts are generally grown in the laboratory on solid growth media
or in liquid broth
s. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include potato dextrose agar
(PDA) or potato dextrose broth, Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient (WLN) agar
, yeast peptone dextrose agar (YPD), and yeast mould agar or broth (YM). Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried malt extract (DME) and agar
as a solid growth medium. The antibiotic
cycloheximide
is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process.
The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as kahm yeast, is often a byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables, usually the result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavour and so must be removed regularly during fermentation.
s, apple
s or peach
es), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. The ecological
function and biodiversity
of yeasts are relatively unknown compared to those of other microorganisms. Yeasts, including Candida albicans
, Rhodotorula rubra
, Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum, have been found living in between people's toes as part of their skin flora
. Yeasts are also present in the gut flora
of mammals and some insects and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.
An Indian study of seven bee
species and 9 plant species found 45 species from 16 genera colonise the nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the Candida
genus; the most common species in honey stomachs was Dekkera intermedia and in flower nectaries, Candida blankii
. Yeast colonising nectaries of the stinking hellebore have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of volatile organic compounds. A black yeast has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between ant
s, their mutualistic fungus
, a fungal parasite of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast have a negative effect on the bacteria that normally produce antibiotic
s to kill the parasite and so may affect the ants' health by allowing the parasite to spread.
Yeasts, like all fungi, may have asexual
and sexual
reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding
. Here a small bud (also known as a bleb
), or daughter cell, is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus
of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. Some yeasts, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe
, reproduce by fission
instead of budding.
Under high stress conditions, haploid cells will generally die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis
) and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate
(conjugate), reforming the diploid.
Some pucciniomycete
yeasts, particularly species of Sporidiobolus and Sporobolomyces produce aerially dispersed, asexual ballistoconidia
.
. Fermentation
of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast
in bread
production; brewer's yeast in beer
fermentation; yeast in wine
fermentation and for xylitol
production. So-called red rice yeast is actually a mold
, Monascus purpureus
. Yeasts include some of the most widely used model organisms for genetics
and cell biology
.
s are defined as beverages
that contain ethanol
(C2H5OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by fermentation
– the metabolism
of carbohydrate
s by certain species of yeast under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as mead, wine
, beer
, or distilled spirits
all use yeast at some stage of their production. A distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by distillation
. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum
are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, ester
s, and other alcohol
s, which account for the flavour of the beverage.
during fermentation. An example of a top cropping yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae
, sometimes called an "ale yeast". Bottom cropping yeasts are typically used to produce lager
-type beers, though they can also produce ale-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom cropping yeast is Saccharomyces pastorianus
, formerly known as S. carlsbergensis.
Decades ago, taxonomists reclassified S. carlsbergensis (uvarum) as a member of S. cerevisae, noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. Lager strains of S. cerevisae secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing it to hydrolyse the disaccharide melibiose into more fermentable monosaccharides. Top cropping and bottom cropping, cold fermenting and warm fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by the laymen to communicate to the general public. For more on the taxonomical differences, see Terrance M. Dowhanick, B.SC., PH. D "Yeast - Strains and Handling Techiques" in The Practical Brewer, a publication of the Master Brewers Association of the Americas.
The most common top cropping brewer's yeast, S. cerevisiae, is the same species as the common baking yeast. Brewer's yeast is also very rich in essential minerals and the B vitamins
(except B12). However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate dough
in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act slower, but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).
Dekkera/Brettanomyces is a genus of yeast known for their important role in the production of Lambic
and specialty sour ales, along with the secondary conditioning of a particular Belgian Trappist beer. The taxonomy of the genus Brettanomyces has been debated since its early discovery and has seen many re-classifications over the years. Early classification was based on a few species that reproduced asexually (anamorph form) through multipolar budding. Shortly after, the formation of ascospores was observed and the genus Dekkera, which reproduces sexually (teleomorph form), was introduced as part of the taxonomy. The current taxonomy includes five species within the genera of Dekkera/Brettanomyces. Those are the anamorphs Brettanomyces bruxellensis
, Brettanomyces anomalus, Brettanomyces custersianus, Brettanomyces naardenensis, and Brettanomyces nanus, with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, Dekkera bruxellensis and Dekkera anomala . The distinction between Dekkera and Brettanomyces is arguable with Oelofse et al. (2008) citing Loureiro and Malfeito-Ferreira from 2006 when they affirmed that current molecular DNA detection techniques have uncovered no variance between the anamorph and teleomorph states. Over the past decade, Brettanomyces spp. have seen an increasing use in the craft-brewing sector of the industry with a handful of breweries having produced beers that were primary fermented with pure cultures of Brettanomyces spp. This has occurred out of experimentation as very little information exists regarding pure culture fermentative capabilities and the aromatic compounds produced by various strains. Dekkera/Brettanomyces spp. have been the subjects of numerous studies conducted over the past century although a majority of the recent research has focused on enhancing the knowledge of the wine industry. Recent research on 8 Brettanomyces strains available in the brewing industry focused on strain specific fermentations and identified the major compounds produced during pure culture anaerobic fermentation in wort.
Yeast is used in winemaking
, where it converts the sugars present in grape juice
(must
) into ethanol
. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins (the white powder called "the bloom"). Fermentation can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast," but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must
; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation.
Most added wine yeasts are strains of S. cerevisiae, though not all strains of the species are suitable. Different S. cerevisiae yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine. Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.
The growth of some yeasts, such as Zygosaccharomyces
and Brettanomyces
, in wine can result in wine fault
s and subsequent spoilage. Brettanomyces produces an array of metabolite
s when growing in wine, some of which are volatile phenol
ic compounds. Together, these compounds are often referred to as "Brettanomyces character", and are often described as "antiseptic
" or "barnyard" type aromas. Brettanomyces is a significant contributor to wine fault
s within the wine industry.
Researchers from University of British Columbia
, Canada
, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced amines. The amines in red wine
and Chardonnay
produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30 percent of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as histamines.
as a leavening agent
, where it converts the fermentable
sugar
s present in dough
into the gas carbon dioxide
. This causes the dough to expand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potato
es, water from potato boiling, eggs
, or sugar
in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeasts. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. Additionally, Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor), a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. Sugar and vinegar
provide the best conditions for yeast to ferment. In bread making, the yeast initially respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted, anaerobic respiration
begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking.
It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records that show this use came from Ancient Egypt
. Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake.
Today, there are several retailers of baker's yeast
; one of the best-known in North America is Fleischmann’s Yeast
, which was developed in 1868. During World War II
, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast, which did not require refrigeration, had a longer shelf life
than fresh yeast and that rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast
is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, and must therefore be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine if yeast is expired. In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as proofing the yeast as it "proves" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When using a sourdough
starter, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the sponge.
When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again. A longer rising time gives a better flavour, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially. The dough is then shaped into loaves, left to rise until it is the correct size, and then baked. Dried yeast is usually specified for use in a bread machine
; however, a (wet) sourdough starter can also work.
. One such yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica, is known to degrade palm oil
mill effluent
, TNT (an explosive material), and other hydrocarbon
s, such as alkane
s, fatty acid
s, fat
s and oil
s. It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and heavy metals, and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal biosorbent.
has been harnessed by the biotechnology
industry to produce ethanol fuel
. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as sugar cane, field corn
, or other cereal grains, and then adding dilute sulfuric acid
, or fungal alpha amylase
enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars
. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled
off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in concentration.
Saccharomyces yeasts have been genetically engineered to ferment xylose
, one of the major fermentable sugars present in cellulosic biomasses
, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making cellulosic ethanol
fuel a more competitively priced alternative to gasoline
fuels.
Root beer
and other sweet carbonated beverages can be produced using the same methods as beer, except the fermentation is stopped sooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol, and a significant amount of sugar is left in the drink. Kvass
, a fermented drink made from rye
, is popular in Eastern Europe
; it has a recognizable, but low alcoholic content. Yeast in symbiosis
with acetic acid bacteria
is used in the preparation of kombucha
, a fermented sweetened tea
. Species of yeast found in the tea can vary, and may include: Brettanomyces bruxellensis
, Candida stellata
, Schizosaccharomyces pombe
, Torulaspora delbrueckii
and Zygosaccharomyces bailii
. Kombucha is a popular beverage in Eastern Europe and some former Soviet republics
under the name chajnyj grib (Чайный гриб), which means "tea mushroom". Kefir
and kumis
are made by fermenting milk with yeast and bacteria.
". It is a deactivated yeast, usually S. cerevisiae. It is an excellent source of protein and vitamins, especially the B-complex vitamins, whose functions are related to metabolism, as well as other mineral
s and cofactor
s required for growth. It is also naturally low in fat
and sodium
. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B12
, which is produced separately by bacteria
. Nutritional yeast, though it has a similar appearance to brewer's yeast, is very different and has a very different taste. Brewer's yeast is a good source of B-complex vitamins but, contrary to some claims, it contains little or no vitamin B12
.
Nutritional yeast has a nutty, cheesy flavor which makes it popular as an ingredient in cheese
substitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of Parmesan cheese
. Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in scrambled eggs
. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal, and can be found in the bulk aisle of most natural food stores. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as "savory yeast flakes". Though "nutritional yeast" usually refers to commercial products, inadequately fed prisoners have used "home-grown" yeast to prevent vitamin deficiency.
supplements use the yeast S. boulardii
to maintain and restore the natural flora in the gastrointestinal tract
. S. boulardii has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute diarrhea
in children, prevent reinfection of Clostridium difficile
, reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant IBS
patients, and reduce the incidence of antibiotic
, traveler's, and HIV/AIDS associated diarrheas.
hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide
(CO2) to nourish plants in planted aquariums
. A homemade setup is widely used as a cheap and simple alternative to pressurized CO2 systems. While not as effective as these, the homemade setup is considerably cheaper for less demanding hobbyists.
There are several recipes for homemade CO2, but they are variations of the basic recipe: Baker's yeast, with sugar
, baking soda and water
, are added to a plastic bottle. A few drops of vegetable oil at the start reduces surface tension and speeds the release of CO2. This will produce CO2 for about 2 or 3 weeks; the use of a bubble counter determines production. The CO2 is injected in the aquarium through a narrow hose and released through a diffuser that helps dissolve the gas in the water. The CO2 is used by plants in the photosynthesis
process.
Several yeasts, particularly S. cerevisiae, have been widely used in genetics
and cell biology
. This is largely because S. cerevisiae is a simple eukaryotic
cell, serving as a model
for all eukaryotes, including human
s for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the cell cycle
, DNA replication
, recombination
, cell division
and metabolism
. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as yeast two-hybrid, synthetic genetic array
analysis and tetrad analysis
. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologue
s in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins
, and protein-processing enzyme
s.
On 24 April 1996 S. cerevisiae was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its genome
, consisting of 12 million base pair
s, fully sequenced as part of the Genome project
. At the time, it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced, and took seven years and the involvement of more than 100 laboratories to accomplish. The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was Schizosaccharomyces pombe
, which was completed in 2002. It was the sixth eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs.
s or flavours. They are often used in the same way that monosodium glutamate
(MSG) is used, and like MSG, often contain free glutamic acid
. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as Vegemite
and Marmite
on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells shrivelling up. This triggers autolysis
, where the yeast's digestive
enzymes break their own protein
s down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls which would give poor texture) are separated. Yeast autolysates are used in Vegemite
and Promite
(Australia
); Marmite
, Bovril
and Oxo
(the United Kingdom
, Republic of Ireland
and South Africa
); and Cenovis
(Switzerland
).
Some species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens where they can cause infection in people with compromised immune systems.
Cryptococcus neoformans
is a significant pathogen of immunocompromised people causing the disease termed cryptococcosis
. This disease occurs in about 7–9% of AIDS
patients in the USA, and a slightly smaller percentage (3–6%) in western Europe. The cells of the yeast are surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide
capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.
Yeasts of the Candida
genus are another group of opportunistic pathogens which causes oral and vagina
l infection
s in humans, known as candidiasis
. Candida is commonly found as a commensal yeast in the mucus membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. Here the yeast cells sprout a hypha
l outgrowth, which locally penetrates the mucosal membrane
, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues. The pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of virulence for humans are: C. albicans
, C. tropicalis
, C. stellatoidea, C. glabrata
, C. krusei
, C. parapsilosis
, C. guilliermondii, C. viswanathii
, C. lusitaniae
and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa
. Candida glabrata
is the second most common Candida pathogen after C. albicans, causing infections of the urogenital tract, and of the bloodstream (candidemia).
s or meat
s, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juice
s, and semi-liquid products, such as syrup
s and jams. The yeast of the Zygosaccharomyces
genus have had a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry
. This is mainly due to the fact that these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose
, ethanol
, acetic acid
, sorbic acid
, benzoic acid
, and sulphur dioxide concentrations, representing some of the commonly used food preservation
methods. Methylene blue
is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells.
Kingdom (biology)
In biology, kingdom is a taxonomic rank, which is either the highest rank or in the more recent three-domain system, the rank below domain. Kingdoms are divided into smaller groups called phyla or divisions in botany...
Fungi
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
, with 1,500 species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
currently described estimated to be only 1% of all fungal species. Most reproduce asexual
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of that parent only, it is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which is reproduction without...
ly by mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
, and many do so by an asymmetric division process called budding
Budding
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism grows on another one. The new organism remains attached as it grows, separating from the parent organism only when it is mature. Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical...
. Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular through the formation of a string of connected budding cells known as pseudohyphae
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
, or false hyphae
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
, as seen in most mold
Mold
Molds are fungi that grow in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. Molds are not considered to be microbes but microscopic fungi that grow as single cells called yeasts...
s. Yeast size can vary greatly depending on the species, typically measuring 3–4 µm in diameter
Diameter
In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints are on the circle. The diameters are the longest chords of the circle...
, although some yeasts can reach over 40 µm.
By fermentation
Fermentation (food)
Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol...
the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It is perhaps the most useful yeast, having been instrumental to baking and brewing since ancient times. It is believed that it was originally isolated from the skin of grapes...
converts carbohydrates to carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
and alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
s - for thousands of years the carbon dioxide has been used in baking
Baking
Baking is the technique of prolonged cooking of food by dry heat acting by convection, and not by radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. It is primarily used for the preparation of bread, cakes, pastries and pies, tarts, quiches, cookies and crackers. Such items...
and the alcohol in alcoholic beverages. It is also extremely important as a model organism
Model organism
A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are in vivo models and are widely used to...
in modern cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
research, and is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have used it to gather information about the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology. Other species of yeast, such as Candida albicans
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Systemic fungal infections including those by C...
, are opportunistic pathogens and can cause infections in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cell
Microbial fuel cell
A microbial fuel cell or biological fuel cell is a bio-electrochemical system that drives a current by mimicking bacterial interactions found in nature....
s, and produce ethanol for the biofuel
Biofuel
Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases...
industry.
Yeasts do not form a single taxonomic
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
or phylogenetic
Phylogenetics
In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices...
grouping. The term "yeast" is often taken as a synonym
Synonym
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn and onoma . The words car and automobile are synonyms...
for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in two separate phyla
Phylum
In biology, a phylum The term was coined by Georges Cuvier from Greek φῦλον phylon, "race, stock," related to φυλή phyle, "tribe, clan." is a taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. "Phylum" is equivalent to the botanical term division....
, the Ascomycota
Ascomycota
The Ascomycota are a Division/Phylum of the kingdom Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the Sac fungi. They are the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species...
and the Basidiomycota
Basidiomycota
Basidiomycota is one of two large phyla that, together with the Ascomycota, comprise the subkingdom Dikarya within the Kingdom Fungi...
. The budding yeasts ("true yeasts") are classified in the order
Order (biology)
In scientific classification used in biology, the order is# a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between class and family...
Saccharomycetales
Saccharomycetales
Saccharomycetales is an order in the kingdom of fungi that comprises the budding yeasts and includes twelve families.-Genera incertae sedis:...
.
History
The word "yeast" comes to us from Old EnglishOld English language
Old English or Anglo-Saxon is an early form of the English language that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in parts of what are now England and southeastern Scotland between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century...
gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning boil, foam, or bubble. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. People have used yeast for fermentation and baking throughout history. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeasted bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, the Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist...
first microscopically
Microscopy
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye...
observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms
Organism
In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
, but rather globular structures. In 1857, French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
microbiologist Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His experiments...
proved in the paper "Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique" that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth
Cell growth
The term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
could be increased, but fermentation was inhibited – an observation later called the "Pasteur effect
Pasteur effect
The Pasteur effect is an inhibiting effect of oxygen on the fermentation process.-Discovery:The effect was discovered in 1857 by Louis Pasteur, who showed that aerating yeasted broth causes yeast cell growth to increase, while conversely, fermentation rate decreases.-Explanation:The effect can be...
".
By the late 18th century, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, so called top fermenting yeast, and S. carlsbergensis, bottom fermenting yeast. S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread making since 1780; while around 1800, the Germans started producing S. cerevisiae in the form of cream. In 1825 a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the filter press
Filter press
Filter press which describes the style of filters developed from the 19th century onwards originally for clay. The majority of today's filters are more correctly called "chamber filter press", "Membrane filter press", or "Membrane Plate Filter"...
in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a manufacturing process to create granulated yeast, a technique that was used until the first World War. In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively until commercial yeast was marketed at the Centennial Exposition
Centennial Exposition
The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. It was officially...
in 1876 in Philadelphia, where Charles L. Fleischmann
Charles L. Fleischmann
Charles Louis Fleischmann was an innovative manufacturer of yeast and other consumer food products during the 19th Century...
exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread.
Nutrition and growth
Yeasts are chemoorganotrophChemoorganotroph
Chemoorganotrophs are organisms which use organic compounds as their energy source. These organic chemicals include glucose and acetate. All animals are chemoorganotrophs, as are fungi, protozoa, and some bacteria. Indeed, most heterotrophs are chemoorganotrophs. However, chemolithotrophs instead...
s, as they use organic compound
Organic compound
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides, as well as the...
s as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose
Hexose
In organic chemistry, a hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, having the chemical formula C6H12O6. Hexoses are classified by functional group, with aldohexoses having an aldehyde at position 1, and ketohexoses having a ketone at position 2....
sugars, such as glucose
Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
and fructose
Fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple monosaccharide found in many plants. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847...
, or disaccharides such as sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
and maltose
Maltose
Maltose , or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an αbond, formed from a condensation reaction. The isomer "isomaltose" has two glucose molecules linked through an α bond. Maltose is the second member of an important biochemical series of glucose chains....
. Some species can metabolize pentose
Pentose
A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms. Pentoses are organized into two groups. Aldopentoses have an aldehyde functional group at position 1...
sugars like ribose, alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
s, and organic acid
Organic acid
An organic acid is an organic compound with acidic properties. The most common organic acids are the carboxylic acids, whose acidity is associated with their carboxyl group –COOH. Sulfonic acids, containing the group –SO2OH, are relatively stronger acids. The relative stability of the conjugate...
s. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
(obligate aerobe
Obligate aerobe
An obligate aerobe is an aerobic organism that requires oxygen to grow. Through cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to oxidize substances, like sugars or fats, in order to obtain energy. During respiration, they use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor...
s), or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production (facultative anaerobes). Unlike bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
, there are no known yeast species that grow only anaerobically (obligate anaerobe
Obligate anaerobe
Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms that live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen; some of these are killed by oxygen. -Metabolism:...
s). Yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment.
Yeasts vary in what temperature range they grow best. For example, Leucosporidium frigidum grows at -2 C, Saccharomyces telluris at 5 to 35 °C (41 to 95 F) and Candida slooffi at 28 to 45 °C (82.4 to 113 F). The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time.
Yeasts are generally grown in the laboratory on solid growth media
Growth medium
A growth medium or culture medium is a liquid or gel designed to support the growth of microorganisms or cells, or small plants like the moss Physcomitrella patens.There are different types of media for growing different types of cells....
or in liquid broth
Broth
Broth is a liquid food preparation, typically consisting of either water or an already flavored stock, in which bones, meat, fish, cereal grains, or vegetables have been simmered. Broth is used as a basis for other edible liquids such as soup, gravy, or sauce. It can be eaten alone or with garnish...
s. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include potato dextrose agar
Potato dextrose agar
Potato dextrose agar and potato dextrose broth are common microbiological growth media made from potato infusion, and dextrose...
(PDA) or potato dextrose broth, Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient (WLN) agar
Agar
Agar or agar-agar is a gelatinous substance derived from a polysaccharide that accumulates in the cell walls of agarophyte red algae. Throughout history into modern times, agar has been chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia and also as a solid substrate to contain culture medium...
, yeast peptone dextrose agar (YPD), and yeast mould agar or broth (YM). Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried malt extract (DME) and agar
Agar
Agar or agar-agar is a gelatinous substance derived from a polysaccharide that accumulates in the cell walls of agarophyte red algae. Throughout history into modern times, agar has been chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia and also as a solid substrate to contain culture medium...
as a solid growth medium. The antibiotic
Antibiotic
An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
cycloheximide
Cycloheximide
Cycloheximide is an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis in eukaryotic organisms, produced by the bacterium Streptomyces griseus. Cycloheximide exerts its effect by interfering with the translocation step in protein synthesis thus blocking translational elongation...
is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process.
The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as kahm yeast, is often a byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables, usually the result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavour and so must be removed regularly during fermentation.
Ecology
Yeasts are very common in the environment, and are often isolated from sugar-rich material. Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries (such as grapeGrape
A grape is a non-climacteric fruit, specifically a berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, molasses and grape seed oil. Grapes are also...
s, apple
Apple
The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family . It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. Apple grow on small, deciduous trees that blossom in the spring...
s or peach
Peach
The peach tree is a deciduous tree growing to tall and 6 in. in diameter, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach...
es), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. The ecological
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
function and biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
of yeasts are relatively unknown compared to those of other microorganisms. Yeasts, including Candida albicans
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Systemic fungal infections including those by C...
, Rhodotorula rubra
Rhodotorula
Rhodotorula is a pigmented yeast, part of the Basidiomycota phylum, quite easily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on SDA . This distinctive colour is the result of pigments that the yeast creates to block out certain wavelengths of light that would otherwise be damaging...
, Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum, have been found living in between people's toes as part of their skin flora
Skin flora
The skin flora are the microorganisms which reside on the skin. Most research has been upon those that reside upon the 2 square metres of human skin. Many of them are bacteria of which there are around 1000 species upon human skin from 19 phyla. The total number of bacteria on an average human has...
. Yeasts are also present in the gut flora
Gut flora
Gut flora consists of microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of animals and is the largest reservoir of human flora. In this context, gut is synonymous with intestinal, and flora with microbiota and microflora....
of mammals and some insects and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.
An Indian study of seven bee
Honey bee
Honey bees are a subset of bees in the genus Apis, primarily distinguished by the production and storage of honey and the construction of perennial, colonial nests out of wax. Honey bees are the only extant members of the tribe Apini, all in the genus Apis...
species and 9 plant species found 45 species from 16 genera colonise the nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the Candida
Candida (genus)
Candida is a genus of yeasts. Many species are harmless commensals or endosymbionts of animal hosts including humans, but other species, or harmless species in the wrong location, can cause disease. Candida albicans can cause infections in humans and other animals, especially in immunocompromised...
genus; the most common species in honey stomachs was Dekkera intermedia and in flower nectaries, Candida blankii
Candida blankii
Candida blankii is a species of yeast....
. Yeast colonising nectaries of the stinking hellebore have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of volatile organic compounds. A black yeast has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between ant
Ant
Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than...
s, their mutualistic fungus
Ant-fungus mutualism
Ant-fungus mutualism is a symbiosis seen in certain ant and fungal species, where ants actively cultivate fungus much like humans farm crops as a food source. In some species, the ants and fungi are dependent on each other for survival. The leafcutter ant is a well known example of this symbiosis...
, a fungal parasite of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast have a negative effect on the bacteria that normally produce antibiotic
Antibiotic
An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
s to kill the parasite and so may affect the ants' health by allowing the parasite to spread.
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of that parent only, it is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which is reproduction without...
and sexual
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction; they are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the...
reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding
Budding
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism grows on another one. The new organism remains attached as it grows, separating from the parent organism only when it is mature. Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical...
. Here a small bud (also known as a bleb
Bleb (cell biology)
In cell biology, a bleb is an irregular bulge in the plasma membrane of a cell caused by localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton from the plasma membrane...
), or daughter cell, is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. Some yeasts, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, also called "fission yeast", is a species of yeast. It is used as a model organism in molecular and cell biology. It is a unicellular eukaryote, whose cells are rod-shaped. Cells typically measure 3 to 4 micrometres in diameter and 7 to 14 micrometres in length...
, reproduce by fission
Fission (biology)
In biology, fission is the subdivision of a cell into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate cells...
instead of budding.
Under high stress conditions, haploid cells will generally die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction. The cells produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. The animals' gametes are called sperm and egg cells....
) and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate
Mating of yeast
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a simple single celled eukaryote with both a diploid and haploid mode of existence. The mating of yeast only occurs between haploids, which can be either the a or α mating type and thus display simple sexual differentiation...
(conjugate), reforming the diploid.
Some pucciniomycete
Pucciniomycotina
Pucciniomycotina is a subdivision of fungus within the division Basidiomycota. According to the Dictionary of the Fungi, the subdivision contains 8 classes, 18 orders, and 36 families.-References:...
yeasts, particularly species of Sporidiobolus and Sporobolomyces produce aerially dispersed, asexual ballistoconidia
Ballistospore
A spore that is shot off. In fungi most types of basidiospores, formed on basidia are discharged into the air from the tips of sterigmata. These actively discharged spores are a type of ballistospore....
.
Uses
The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of biotechnologyBiotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...
. Fermentation
Fermentation (biochemistry)
Fermentation is the process of extracting energy from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, using an endogenous electron acceptor, which is usually an organic compound. In contrast, respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen,...
of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast
Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in baking bread and bakery products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol...
in bread
Bread
Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking a dough of flour and water and often additional ingredients. Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed , fried , or baked on an unoiled frying pan . It may be leavened or unleavened...
production; brewer's yeast in beer
Beer
Beer is the world's most widely consumed andprobably oldest alcoholic beverage; it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of sugars, mainly derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat...
fermentation; yeast in wine
Wine
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients. Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast...
fermentation and for xylitol
Xylitol
Xylitol is a sugar alcohol sweetener used as a naturally occurring sugar substitute. It is found in the fibers of many fruits and vegetables, and can be extracted from various berries, oats, and mushrooms, as well as fibrous material such as corn husks and sugar cane bagasse, and birch...
production. So-called red rice yeast is actually a mold
Mold
Molds are fungi that grow in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. Molds are not considered to be microbes but microscopic fungi that grow as single cells called yeasts...
, Monascus purpureus
Monascus purpureus
Monascus purpureus is a species of mold that is purplish-red in color...
. Yeasts include some of the most widely used model organisms for genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
and cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
.
Alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic beverageAlcoholic beverage
An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries, and over 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption...
s are defined as beverages
Drink
A drink, or beverage, is a liquid which is specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition to fulfilling a basic human need, beverages form part of the culture of human society.-Water:...
that contain ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
(C2H5OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by fermentation
Fermentation (food)
Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol...
– the metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
of carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s by certain species of yeast under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as mead, wine
Wine
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients. Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast...
, beer
Beer
Beer is the world's most widely consumed andprobably oldest alcoholic beverage; it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of sugars, mainly derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat...
, or distilled spirits
Distilled beverage
A distilled beverage, liquor, or spirit is an alcoholic beverage containing ethanol that is produced by distilling ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables...
all use yeast at some stage of their production. A distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by distillation
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....
. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum
Rum
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane by-products such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels...
are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, ester
Ester
Esters are chemical compounds derived by reacting an oxoacid with a hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol. Esters are usually derived from an inorganic acid or organic acid in which at least one -OH group is replaced by an -O-alkyl group, and most commonly from carboxylic acids and...
s, and other alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
s, which account for the flavour of the beverage.
Beer
Brewing yeasts may be classed as "top cropping" (or "top fermenting") and "bottom cropping" (or "bottom-fermenting"). Top cropping yeasts are so called because they form a foam at the top of the wortWort
Wort may refer to:* Wort, the liquid created by the mashing of malted barley to use in brewing beer* Worting, Hampshire, a large district and suburb of the town of Basingstoke, in Hampshire, England....
during fermentation. An example of a top cropping yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It is perhaps the most useful yeast, having been instrumental to baking and brewing since ancient times. It is believed that it was originally isolated from the skin of grapes...
, sometimes called an "ale yeast". Bottom cropping yeasts are typically used to produce lager
Lager
Lager is a type of beer made from malted barley that is brewed and stored at low temperatures. There are many types of lager; pale lager is the most widely-consumed and commercially available style of beer in the world; Pilsner, Bock, Dortmunder Export and Märzen are all styles of lager...
-type beers, though they can also produce ale-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom cropping yeast is Saccharomyces pastorianus
Saccharomyces pastorianus
Saccharomyces pastorianus is a yeast, used industrially for the production of lager beer. It is a synonym of the yeast species Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, which was originally described in 1883 by Emil Christian Hansen, who was working for the Danish brewery Carlsberg.-Genomics:As S...
, formerly known as S. carlsbergensis.
Decades ago, taxonomists reclassified S. carlsbergensis (uvarum) as a member of S. cerevisae, noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. Lager strains of S. cerevisae secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing it to hydrolyse the disaccharide melibiose into more fermentable monosaccharides. Top cropping and bottom cropping, cold fermenting and warm fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by the laymen to communicate to the general public. For more on the taxonomical differences, see Terrance M. Dowhanick, B.SC., PH. D "Yeast - Strains and Handling Techiques" in The Practical Brewer, a publication of the Master Brewers Association of the Americas.
The most common top cropping brewer's yeast, S. cerevisiae, is the same species as the common baking yeast. Brewer's yeast is also very rich in essential minerals and the B vitamins
B vitamins
B vitamins are a group of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. The B vitamins were once thought to be a single vitamin, referred to as vitamin B . Later research showed that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods...
(except B12). However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate dough
Dough
Dough is a paste made out of any cereals or leguminous crops by mixing flour with a small amount of water and/or other liquid. This process is a precursor to making a wide variety of foodstuffs, particularly breads and bread-based items , flatbreads, noodles, pastry, and similar items)...
in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act slower, but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).
Dekkera/Brettanomyces is a genus of yeast known for their important role in the production of Lambic
Lambic
Lambic is a very distinctive type of beer brewed only in the Pajottenland region of Belgium and in Brussels itself at the Cantillon Brewery and museum...
and specialty sour ales, along with the secondary conditioning of a particular Belgian Trappist beer. The taxonomy of the genus Brettanomyces has been debated since its early discovery and has seen many re-classifications over the years. Early classification was based on a few species that reproduced asexually (anamorph form) through multipolar budding. Shortly after, the formation of ascospores was observed and the genus Dekkera, which reproduces sexually (teleomorph form), was introduced as part of the taxonomy. The current taxonomy includes five species within the genera of Dekkera/Brettanomyces. Those are the anamorphs Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Brettanomyces bruxellensis is a yeast native to the Senne valley near Brussels, Belgium. It is one of several members of the genus, which was discovered at the Carlsberg brewery in 1904 by N. Hjelte Claussen, who was investigating it as a cause of spoilage in English ales, hence the name...
, Brettanomyces anomalus, Brettanomyces custersianus, Brettanomyces naardenensis, and Brettanomyces nanus, with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, Dekkera bruxellensis and Dekkera anomala . The distinction between Dekkera and Brettanomyces is arguable with Oelofse et al. (2008) citing Loureiro and Malfeito-Ferreira from 2006 when they affirmed that current molecular DNA detection techniques have uncovered no variance between the anamorph and teleomorph states. Over the past decade, Brettanomyces spp. have seen an increasing use in the craft-brewing sector of the industry with a handful of breweries having produced beers that were primary fermented with pure cultures of Brettanomyces spp. This has occurred out of experimentation as very little information exists regarding pure culture fermentative capabilities and the aromatic compounds produced by various strains. Dekkera/Brettanomyces spp. have been the subjects of numerous studies conducted over the past century although a majority of the recent research has focused on enhancing the knowledge of the wine industry. Recent research on 8 Brettanomyces strains available in the brewing industry focused on strain specific fermentations and identified the major compounds produced during pure culture anaerobic fermentation in wort.
Wine
Winemaking
Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material...
, where it converts the sugars present in grape juice
Grape juice
Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy, or vinegar. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7-23 percent of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must"...
(must
Must
Must is freshly pressed fruit juice that contains the skins, seeds, and stems of the fruit. The solid portion of the must is called pomace; it typically makes up 7%–23% of the total weight of the must. Making must is the first step in winemaking...
) into ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins (the white powder called "the bloom"). Fermentation can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast," but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must
Must
Must is freshly pressed fruit juice that contains the skins, seeds, and stems of the fruit. The solid portion of the must is called pomace; it typically makes up 7%–23% of the total weight of the must. Making must is the first step in winemaking...
; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation.
Most added wine yeasts are strains of S. cerevisiae, though not all strains of the species are suitable. Different S. cerevisiae yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine. Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.
The growth of some yeasts, such as Zygosaccharomyces
Zygosaccharomyces
Zygosaccharomyces is a genus of yeast in the family Saccharomycetaceae. It was first described under the Saccharomyces genus but in 1983 it was reclassified to its current name in the work by Barnett et al. The yeast has a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry. This is mainly...
and Brettanomyces
Brettanomyces
Brettanomyces is a non-spore forming genus of yeast in the family Saccharomycetaceae, and is often colloquially referred to as "Brett". The genus name Dekkera is used interchangeably with Brettanomyces, as it describes the teleomorph or spore forming form of the yeast. The cellular morphology of...
, in wine can result in wine fault
Wine fault
A wine fault or defect is an unpleasant characteristic of a wine often resulting from poor winemaking practices or storage conditions, and leading to wine spoilage. Many of the compounds that cause wine faults are already naturally present in wine but at insufficient concentrations to adversely...
s and subsequent spoilage. Brettanomyces produces an array of metabolite
Metabolite
Metabolites are the intermediates and products of metabolism. The term metabolite is usually restricted to small molecules. A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction. Alcohol is an example of a primary metabolite produced in large-scale by industrial...
s when growing in wine, some of which are volatile phenol
Phenol
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, phenic acid, is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid. The molecule consists of a phenyl , bonded to a hydroxyl group. It is produced on a large scale as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds...
ic compounds. Together, these compounds are often referred to as "Brettanomyces character", and are often described as "antiseptic
Antiseptic
Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction...
" or "barnyard" type aromas. Brettanomyces is a significant contributor to wine fault
Wine fault
A wine fault or defect is an unpleasant characteristic of a wine often resulting from poor winemaking practices or storage conditions, and leading to wine spoilage. Many of the compounds that cause wine faults are already naturally present in wine but at insufficient concentrations to adversely...
s within the wine industry.
Researchers from University of British Columbia
University of British Columbia
The University of British Columbia is a public research university. UBC’s two main campuses are situated in Vancouver and in Kelowna in the Okanagan Valley...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced amines. The amines in red wine
Wine color
The color of wine is one of the most easily recognizable characteristics of wines. Color is also an element in wine tasting since heavy wines generally have a deeper color. The accessory traditionally used to judge the wine color was the tastevin, a shallow cup allowing to see the color of the...
and Chardonnay
Chardonnay
Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety used to make white wine. It is originated from the Burgundy wine region of eastern France but is now grown wherever wine is produced, from England to New Zealand...
produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30 percent of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as histamines.
Baking
Yeast, most commonly S. cerevisiae, is used in bakingBaking
Baking is the technique of prolonged cooking of food by dry heat acting by convection, and not by radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. It is primarily used for the preparation of bread, cakes, pastries and pies, tarts, quiches, cookies and crackers. Such items...
as a leavening agent
Leavening agent
A leavening agent is any one of a number of substances used in doughs and batters that cause a foaming action which lightens and softens the finished product...
, where it converts the fermentable
Fermentation (food)
Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol...
sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
s present in dough
Dough
Dough is a paste made out of any cereals or leguminous crops by mixing flour with a small amount of water and/or other liquid. This process is a precursor to making a wide variety of foodstuffs, particularly breads and bread-based items , flatbreads, noodles, pastry, and similar items)...
into the gas carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
. This causes the dough to expand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potato
Potato
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae family . The word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. In the region of the Andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species...
es, water from potato boiling, eggs
Egg (food)
Eggs are laid by females of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, and have probably been eaten by mankind for millennia. Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen , and vitellus , contained within various thin membranes...
, or sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeasts. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. Additionally, Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor), a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. Sugar and vinegar
Vinegar
Vinegar is a liquid substance consisting mainly of acetic acid and water, the acetic acid being produced through the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria. Commercial vinegar is produced either by fast or slow fermentation processes. Slow methods generally are used with traditional...
provide the best conditions for yeast to ferment. In bread making, the yeast initially respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted, anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain; it is respiration without oxygen...
begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking.
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
. Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake.
Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in baking bread and bakery products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol...
; one of the best-known in North America is Fleischmann’s Yeast
Fleischmann’s Yeast
Fleischmann’s Yeast is a brand of yeast sold to both consumer and industrial markets in the United States and Canada. It is available in a number of different forms, each with its own specific benefit. Fleischmann's Active Dry Yeast is the best-known of their yeast products due to its extended...
, which was developed in 1868. During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast, which did not require refrigeration, had a longer shelf life
Shelf life
Shelf life is the length of time that food, drink, medicine, chemicals, and many other perishable items are given before they are considered unsuitable for sale, use, or consumption...
than fresh yeast and that rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast
Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in baking bread and bakery products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol...
is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, and must therefore be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine if yeast is expired. In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as proofing the yeast as it "proves" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When using a sourdough
Sourdough
Sourdough is a dough containing a Lactobacillus culture, usually in symbiotic combination with yeasts. It is one of two principal means of biological leavening in bread baking, along with the use of cultivated forms of yeast . It is of particular importance in baking rye-based breads, where yeast...
starter, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the sponge.
When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again. A longer rising time gives a better flavour, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially. The dough is then shaped into loaves, left to rise until it is the correct size, and then baked. Dried yeast is usually specified for use in a bread machine
Bread machine
A bread making machine or bread maker is a home appliance for baking bread. It consists of a bread pan with a paddle mounted in the center of a small special-purpose oven, with a control panel...
; however, a (wet) sourdough starter can also work.
Bioremediation
Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of bioremediationBioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated...
. One such yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica, is known to degrade palm oil
Palm oil
Palm oil, coconut oil and palm kernel oil are edible plant oils derived from the fruits of palm trees. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis; palm kernel oil is derived from the kernel of the oil palm and coconut oil is derived from the kernel of the...
mill effluent
Effluent
Effluent is an outflowing of water or gas from a natural body of water, or from a human-made structure.Effluent is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as “wastewater - treated or untreated - that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers...
, TNT (an explosive material), and other hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls....
s, such as alkane
Alkane
Alkanes are chemical compounds that consist only of hydrogen and carbon atoms and are bonded exclusively by single bonds without any cycles...
s, fatty acid
Fatty acid
In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long unbranched aliphatic tail , which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 28. Fatty acids are usually derived from...
s, fat
Fat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
s and oil
Oil
An oil is any substance that is liquid at ambient temperatures and does not mix with water but may mix with other oils and organic solvents. This general definition includes vegetable oils, volatile essential oils, petrochemical oils, and synthetic oils....
s. It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and heavy metals, and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal biosorbent.
Industrial ethanol production
The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanolEthanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
has been harnessed by the biotechnology
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...
industry to produce ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as sugar cane, field corn
Field corn
Field corn is maize of varieties that are not, in the United States, grown primarily for consumption as human food in the form of fresh kernels. More than 98% of corn-growing land in the U.S...
, or other cereal grains, and then adding dilute sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
, or fungal alpha amylase
Amylase
Amylase is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars. Amylase is present in human saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Food that contains much starch but little sugar, such as rice and potato, taste slightly sweet as they are chewed because amylase turns...
enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars
Monosaccharide
Monosaccharides are the most basic units of biologically important carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose , fructose , galactose, xylose...
. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities of components in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction....
off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in concentration.
Saccharomyces yeasts have been genetically engineered to ferment xylose
Xylose
Xylose is a sugar first isolated from wood, and named for it. Xylose is classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type, which means that it contains five carbon atoms and includes an aldehyde functional group. It is the precursor to hemicellulose, one of the main constituents of biomass...
, one of the major fermentable sugars present in cellulosic biomasses
Lignocellulosic biomass
Lignocellulosic biomass refers to plant biomass that is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The carbohydrate polymers are tightly bound to the lignin...
, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making cellulosic ethanol
Cellulosic ethanol
Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants.It is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin...
fuel a more competitively priced alternative to gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
fuels.
Nonalcoholic beverages
Root beer
Root beer is a carbonated, sweetened beverage, originally made using the root of a sassafras plant as the primary flavor. Root beer, popularized in North America, comes in two forms: alcoholic and soft drink. The historical root beer was analogous to small beer in that the process provided a drink...
and other sweet carbonated beverages can be produced using the same methods as beer, except the fermentation is stopped sooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol, and a significant amount of sugar is left in the drink. Kvass
Kvass
Kvass, kvas, quass or gira, gėra is a fermented beverage made from black...
, a fermented drink made from rye
Rye
Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain and as a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe and is closely related to barley and wheat. Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder...
, is popular in Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is the eastern part of Europe. The term has widely disparate geopolitical, geographical, cultural and socioeconomic readings, which makes it highly context-dependent and even volatile, and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...
; it has a recognizable, but low alcoholic content. Yeast in symbiosis
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is close and often long-term interaction between different biological species. In 1877 Bennett used the word symbiosis to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens...
with acetic acid bacteria
Acetic acid bacteria
Acetic acid bacteria are bacteria that derive their energy from the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid during fermentation. They are Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. Not to be confused with the genus Acetobacterium which are anaerobic homoacetogenic facultative autotrophs and can...
is used in the preparation of kombucha
Kombucha
Kombucha is an effervescent tea-based beverage that is often drunk for its anecdotal health benefits or medicinal purposes. Kombucha is available commercially and can be made at home by fermenting tea using a visible, solid mass of yeast and bacteria which forms the kombucha culture, often referred...
, a fermented sweetened tea
Tea
Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by adding cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant to hot water. The term also refers to the plant itself. After water, tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world...
. Species of yeast found in the tea can vary, and may include: Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Brettanomyces bruxellensis
Brettanomyces bruxellensis is a yeast native to the Senne valley near Brussels, Belgium. It is one of several members of the genus, which was discovered at the Carlsberg brewery in 1904 by N. Hjelte Claussen, who was investigating it as a cause of spoilage in English ales, hence the name...
, Candida stellata
Candida stellata
Candida stellata is a species of yeast of the genus Candida. In the 1978 work of Yarrow & Meyer the yeast was reclassified to its current name from Saccharomyces stellatus, which was initially described by Kroemer and Krumbholz in 1931....
, Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, also called "fission yeast", is a species of yeast. It is used as a model organism in molecular and cell biology. It is a unicellular eukaryote, whose cells are rod-shaped. Cells typically measure 3 to 4 micrometres in diameter and 7 to 14 micrometres in length...
, Torulaspora delbrueckii
Torulaspora delbrueckii
Torulaspora delbrueckii is a yeast species which is also known as Saccharomyces delbrueckii or Saccharomyces rosei .The genetic analyses have revealed that the various strains treated as T...
and Zygosaccharomyces bailii
Zygosaccharomyces bailii
Zygosaccharomyces bailii is the type species for the genus Zygosaccharomyces. It was initially described as Saccharomyces bailii by Lindner in 1895, but in 1983 was reclassified as Zygosaccharomyces bailii in the work by Barnett et al....
. Kombucha is a popular beverage in Eastern Europe and some former Soviet republics
Post-Soviet states
The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as the Former Soviet Union or former Soviet republics, are the 15 independent states that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in its dissolution in December 1991...
under the name chajnyj grib (Чайный гриб), which means "tea mushroom". Kefir
Kefir
Kefir is a fermented milk drink that originated with shepherds of the North Caucasus region, who discovered that fresh milk carried in leather pouches would occasionally ferment into an effervescent beverage...
and kumis
Kumis
Kumis, also spelled kumiss or koumiss in English is a fermented dairy product traditionally made from mare's milk. The drink remains important to the peoples of the Central Asian steppes, of Turkic and Mongol origin: Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Yakuts, Mongols and Kalmyks...
are made by fermenting milk with yeast and bacteria.
Nutritional supplements
Yeast is used in nutritional supplements popular with vegans and the health conscious, where it is often referred to as "nutritional yeastNutritional yeast
Nutritional yeast is a deactivated yeast, usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The scientific work of Louis Pasteur made it possible to isolate yeast in pure culture form. Nutritional yeast is produced by culturing the yeast with a mixture of sugarcane and beet molasses for a period of 7 days and...
". It is a deactivated yeast, usually S. cerevisiae. It is an excellent source of protein and vitamins, especially the B-complex vitamins, whose functions are related to metabolism, as well as other mineral
Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance formed through biogeochemical processes, having characteristic chemical composition, highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not...
s and cofactor
Cofactor (biochemistry)
A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. These proteins are commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations....
s required for growth. It is also naturally low in fat
Fat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
and sodium
Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride...
. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B12
Cyanocobalamin
Cyanocobalamin is an especially common vitamer of the vitamin B12 family. It is the most famous vitamer of the family, because it is, in chemical terms, the most air-stable...
, which is produced separately by bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
. Nutritional yeast, though it has a similar appearance to brewer's yeast, is very different and has a very different taste. Brewer's yeast is a good source of B-complex vitamins but, contrary to some claims, it contains little or no vitamin B12
Cyanocobalamin
Cyanocobalamin is an especially common vitamer of the vitamin B12 family. It is the most famous vitamer of the family, because it is, in chemical terms, the most air-stable...
.
Nutritional yeast has a nutty, cheesy flavor which makes it popular as an ingredient in cheese
Cheese
Cheese is a generic term for a diverse group of milk-based food products. Cheese is produced throughout the world in wide-ranging flavors, textures, and forms....
substitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of Parmesan cheese
Parmigiano Reggiano
Parmigiano-Reggiano , also known in English as Parmesan , is a hard granular cheese, cooked but not pressed, named after the producing areas near Parma, Reggio Emilia, Modena, and Bologna , and Mantova , Italy...
. Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in scrambled eggs
Scrambled eggs
Scrambled eggs is a dish made from beaten whites and yolks of eggs . Beaten eggs are put into a hot pot or pan and stirred frequently, forming curds as they coagulate.-Sample preparation:...
. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal, and can be found in the bulk aisle of most natural food stores. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as "savory yeast flakes". Though "nutritional yeast" usually refers to commercial products, inadequately fed prisoners have used "home-grown" yeast to prevent vitamin deficiency.
Probiotics
Some probioticProbiotic
Probiotics are live microorganisms thought to be beneficial to the host organism. According to the currently adopted definition by FAO/WHO, probiotics are: "Live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host"...
supplements use the yeast S. boulardii
Saccharomyces boulardii
Saccharomyces boulardii is a tropical strain of yeast first isolated from lychee and mangosteen fruit in 1923 by French scientist Henri Boulard. It is related to, but distinct from, Saccharomyces cerevisiae in several taxonomic, metabolic, and genetic properties. S...
to maintain and restore the natural flora in the gastrointestinal tract
Gastrointestinal tract
The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus. ....
. S. boulardii has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute diarrhea
Diarrhea
Diarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
in children, prevent reinfection of Clostridium difficile
Clostridium difficile
Clostridium difficile , also known as "CDF/cdf", or "C...
, reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant IBS
Irritable bowel syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome is a diagnosis of exclusion. It is a functional bowel disorder characterized by chronic abdominal pain, discomfort, bloating, and alteration of bowel habits in the absence of any detectable organic cause. In some cases, the symptoms are relieved by bowel movements...
patients, and reduce the incidence of antibiotic
Antibiotic-associated diarrhea
Antibiotic-associated diarrhea results from an imbalance in the colonic microbiota caused by antibiotic therapy. Microbiota alteration changes carbohydrate metabolism with decreased short-chain fatty acid absorption and an osmotic diarrhea as a result...
, traveler's, and HIV/AIDS associated diarrheas.
Aquarium hobby
Yeast is often used by aquariumAquarium
An aquarium is a vivarium consisting of at least one transparent side in which water-dwelling plants or animals are kept. Fishkeepers use aquaria to keep fish, invertebrates, amphibians, marine mammals, turtles, and aquatic plants...
hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
(CO2) to nourish plants in planted aquariums
Aquascaping
Aquascaping is the craft of arranging aquatic plants, as well as rocks, stones, cavework, or driftwood, in an aesthetically pleasing manner within an aquarium—in effect, gardening under water. Aquascape designs include a number of distinct styles, including the garden-like Dutch style and the...
. A homemade setup is widely used as a cheap and simple alternative to pressurized CO2 systems. While not as effective as these, the homemade setup is considerably cheaper for less demanding hobbyists.
There are several recipes for homemade CO2, but they are variations of the basic recipe: Baker's yeast, with sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
, baking soda and water
Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state . Water also exists in a...
, are added to a plastic bottle. A few drops of vegetable oil at the start reduces surface tension and speeds the release of CO2. This will produce CO2 for about 2 or 3 weeks; the use of a bubble counter determines production. The CO2 is injected in the aquarium through a narrow hose and released through a diffuser that helps dissolve the gas in the water. The CO2 is used by plants in the photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
process.
Science
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
and cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
. This is largely because S. cerevisiae is a simple eukaryotic
Eukaryote
A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
cell, serving as a model
Model organism
A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are in vivo models and are widely used to...
for all eukaryotes, including human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the cell cycle
Cell cycle
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, DNA replication
DNA replication
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance. The process starts with one double-stranded DNA molecule and produces two identical copies of the molecule...
, recombination
Genetic recombination
Genetic recombination is a process by which a molecule of nucleic acid is broken and then joined to a different one. Recombination can occur between similar molecules of DNA, as in homologous recombination, or dissimilar molecules, as in non-homologous end joining. Recombination is a common method...
, cell division
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
and metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as yeast two-hybrid, synthetic genetic array
Synthetic genetic array
Synthetic Genetic Array analysis is a high-throughput technique for exploring synthetic lethal and synthetic sick genetic interactions . SGA allows for the systematic construction of double mutants using a combination of recombinant genetic techniques, mating and selection steps...
analysis and tetrad analysis
Tetrad (genetics)
The tetrad is the four spores of a yeast or Chlamydomonas, that separate after mating. If the two parents have a mutation in two different genes, the tetrad can segregate as the parental ditype , the non-parental ditype or as the tetratype ....
. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologue
Homology (biology)
Homology forms the basis of organization for comparative biology. In 1843, Richard Owen defined homology as "the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function". Organs as different as a bat's wing, a seal's flipper, a cat's paw and a human hand have a common underlying...
s in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins
Cell signaling
Cell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
, and protein-processing enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
s.
On 24 April 1996 S. cerevisiae was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its genome
Genome
In modern molecular biology and genetics, the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA. The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA/RNA....
, consisting of 12 million base pair
Base pair
In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair...
s, fully sequenced as part of the Genome project
Genome project
Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features...
. At the time, it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced, and took seven years and the involvement of more than 100 laboratories to accomplish. The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, also called "fission yeast", is a species of yeast. It is used as a model organism in molecular and cell biology. It is a unicellular eukaryote, whose cells are rod-shaped. Cells typically measure 3 to 4 micrometres in diameter and 7 to 14 micrometres in length...
, which was completed in 2002. It was the sixth eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs.
Yeast extract
Yeast extract is the common name for various forms of processed yeast products that are used as food additiveFood additive
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste and appearance.Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling , salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines...
s or flavours. They are often used in the same way that monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate or MSG, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids....
(MSG) is used, and like MSG, often contain free glutamic acid
Glutamic acid
Glutamic acid is one of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids, and its codons are GAA and GAG. It is a non-essential amino acid. The carboxylate anions and salts of glutamic acid are known as glutamates...
. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as Vegemite
Vegemite
Vegemite is a dark brown Australian food paste made from yeast extract. It is a spread for sandwiches, toast, crumpets and cracker biscuits, and filling for pastries...
and Marmite
Marmite
Marmite is the name given to two similar food spreads: the original British version, first produced in the United Kingdom and later South Africa, and a version produced in New Zealand...
on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells shrivelling up. This triggers autolysis
Autolysis (biology)
In biology, autolysis, more commonly known as self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its own enzymes. It may also refer to the digestion of an enzyme by another molecule of the same enzyme....
, where the yeast's digestive
Digestion
Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that are more easily absorbed into a blood stream, for instance. Digestion is a form of catabolism: a breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones....
enzymes break their own protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls which would give poor texture) are separated. Yeast autolysates are used in Vegemite
Vegemite
Vegemite is a dark brown Australian food paste made from yeast extract. It is a spread for sandwiches, toast, crumpets and cracker biscuits, and filling for pastries...
and Promite
Promite
Promite is the registered brand name for a dark brown, salty food paste mainly used as a spread on sandwiches and toast similar to the better known Vegemite and Marmite. Promite was invented in the 1950s by Dr. David Lewis of the family food company Henry Lewis & Company and marketed under the...
(Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
); Marmite
Marmite
Marmite is the name given to two similar food spreads: the original British version, first produced in the United Kingdom and later South Africa, and a version produced in New Zealand...
, Bovril
Bovril
Bovril is the trademarked name of a thick, salty meat extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston and sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar. It is made in Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire, owned and distributed by Unilever UK....
and Oxo
Oxo (food)
Oxo is a range of food products, consisting of stock cubes, herbs and spices, dried gravy, and yeast extract. In the United Kingdom, Oxo products are manufactured by Premier Foods...
(the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Republic of Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
and South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
); and Cenovis
Cenovis
Cenovis is a product based on yeast extract similar to Marmite and Vegemite, rich in vitamin B1. In the form of a dark brown food paste, it is used to flavour soups, sausages, and salads. The most popular way to consume Cenovis is however to spread it on a slice of buttered bread, as stated on the...
(Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
).
Pathogenic yeasts
Cryptococcus neoformans
Cryptococcus neoformans
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella neoformans, a filamentous fungus belonging to the class Tremellomycetes. It is often found in pigeon excrement....
is a significant pathogen of immunocompromised people causing the disease termed cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis, or cryptococcal disease, is a potentially fatal fungal disease. It is caused by one of two species; Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. These were all previously thought to be subspecies of C...
. This disease occurs in about 7–9% of AIDS
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus...
patients in the USA, and a slightly smaller percentage (3–6%) in western Europe. The cells of the yeast are surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules, of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure,...
capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.
Yeasts of the Candida
Candida (genus)
Candida is a genus of yeasts. Many species are harmless commensals or endosymbionts of animal hosts including humans, but other species, or harmless species in the wrong location, can cause disease. Candida albicans can cause infections in humans and other animals, especially in immunocompromised...
genus are another group of opportunistic pathogens which causes oral and vagina
Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles. Female insects and other invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the...
l infection
Infection
An infection is the colonization of a host organism by parasite species. Infecting parasites seek to use the host's resources to reproduce, often resulting in disease...
s in humans, known as candidiasis
Candidiasis
Thrush redirects here. For the hoof infection see Thrush .Candidiasis or thrush is a fungal infection of any of the Candida species , of which Candida albicans is the most common...
. Candida is commonly found as a commensal yeast in the mucus membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. Here the yeast cells sprout a hypha
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
l outgrowth, which locally penetrates the mucosal membrane
Mucous membrane
The mucous membranes are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, which are involved in absorption and secretion. They line cavities that are exposed to the external environment and internal organs...
, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues. The pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of virulence for humans are: C. albicans
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Systemic fungal infections including those by C...
, C. tropicalis
Candida tropicalis
Candida tropicalis is a species of yeast in the genus Candida. It is easily recognized as a common medical yeast pathogen, existing as part of the normal human flora.-External links:*...
, C. stellatoidea, C. glabrata
Candida glabrata
Candida glabrata is a haploid yeast of the genus Candida, previously known as Torulopsis glabrata. This species of yeast is non-dimorphic and no mating activity has been observed. Until recently, C. glabrata was thought to be a primarily non-pathogenic organism. However, with the ever increasing...
, C. krusei
Candida krusei
Candida krusei is a budding yeast involved in chocolate production. Candida krusei is an emerging fungal nosocomial pathogen primarily found in the immunocompromised and those with hematological malignancies. It has natural resistance to fluconazole, a standard antifungal agent...
, C. parapsilosis
Candida parapsilosis
Candida parapsilosis is a fungal species of the yeast family that has become a significant cause of sepsis and of wound and tissue infections in immuno-compromised patients. The immune system is a major player in Candida parapsilosis infections...
, C. guilliermondii, C. viswanathii
Candida viswanathii
Candida viswanathii is a species of yeast in the genus Candida.-External links:*...
, C. lusitaniae
Candida lusitaniae
Candida lusitaniae is a species of yeast in the genus Candida.C. lusitaniae was first identified as a human pathogen in 1979.C. lusitaniae was initially described as a rare cause of fungemia, with fewer than 30 cases reported between 1979 and 1990...
and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa
Rhodotorula
Rhodotorula is a pigmented yeast, part of the Basidiomycota phylum, quite easily identifiable by distinctive orange/red colonies when grown on SDA . This distinctive colour is the result of pigments that the yeast creates to block out certain wavelengths of light that would otherwise be damaging...
. Candida glabrata
Candida glabrata
Candida glabrata is a haploid yeast of the genus Candida, previously known as Torulopsis glabrata. This species of yeast is non-dimorphic and no mating activity has been observed. Until recently, C. glabrata was thought to be a primarily non-pathogenic organism. However, with the ever increasing...
is the second most common Candida pathogen after C. albicans, causing infections of the urogenital tract, and of the bloodstream (candidemia).
Food spoilage
Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH, (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organic acids and other easily metabolized carbon sources. During their growth, yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensible properties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled. The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surface, as in cheeseCheese
Cheese is a generic term for a diverse group of milk-based food products. Cheese is produced throughout the world in wide-ranging flavors, textures, and forms....
s or meat
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
s, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juice
Juice
Juice is the liquid that is naturally contained in fruit or vegetable tissue.Juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the liquid extract of the fruit of the orange tree...
s, and semi-liquid products, such as syrup
Syrup
In cooking, a syrup is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars but showing little tendency to deposit crystals...
s and jams. The yeast of the Zygosaccharomyces
Zygosaccharomyces
Zygosaccharomyces is a genus of yeast in the family Saccharomycetaceae. It was first described under the Saccharomyces genus but in 1983 it was reclassified to its current name in the work by Barnett et al. The yeast has a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry. This is mainly...
genus have had a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry
Food industry
The food production is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that together supply much of the food energy consumed by the world population...
. This is mainly due to the fact that these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose
Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose with the molecular formula...
, ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
, acetic acid
Acetic acid
Acetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH3CO2H . It is a colourless liquid that when undiluted is also called glacial acetic acid. Acetic acid is the main component of vinegar , and has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell...
, sorbic acid
Sorbic acid
Sorbic acid, or 2,4-hexadienoic acid, is a natural organic compound used as a food preservative. It has the chemical formula C6H8O2. It is a colourless solid that is slightly soluble in water and sublimes readily...
, benzoic acid
Benzoic acid
Benzoic acid , C7H6O2 , is a colorless crystalline solid and the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid. The name derived from gum benzoin, which was for a long time the only source for benzoic acid. Its salts are used as a food preservative and benzoic acid is an important precursor for the synthesis...
, and sulphur dioxide concentrations, representing some of the commonly used food preservation
Food preservation
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down spoilage and thus allow for longer storage....
methods. Methylene blue
Methylene blue
Methylene blue is a heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound with the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl. It has many uses in a range of different fields, such as biology and chemistry. At room temperature it appears as a solid, odorless, dark green powder, that yields a blue solution when dissolved in...
is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells.
See also
- Fungal infection
- Yeast infection
- BioaerosolBioaerosolA bioaerosol is a suspension of airborne particles that contain living organisms or were released from living organisms. These particles are very small and range in size from less than one micrometer to one hundred micrometers . Bioaerosols react to air currents and move quickly or slowly...
- Baker's yeastBaker's yeastBaker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in baking bread and bakery products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol...
- CandidiasisCandidiasisThrush redirects here. For the hoof infection see Thrush .Candidiasis or thrush is a fungal infection of any of the Candida species , of which Candida albicans is the most common...
(yeast infection) - Ethanol fermentationEthanol fermentationEthanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products...
- Tetrad (genetics)Tetrad (genetics)The tetrad is the four spores of a yeast or Chlamydomonas, that separate after mating. If the two parents have a mutation in two different genes, the tetrad can segregate as the parental ditype , the non-parental ditype or as the tetratype ....
- WinemakingWinemakingWinemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material...
- Start point (yeast)Start point (yeast)The Start checkpoint is a major cell cycle checkpoint in yeast. The Start checkpoint ensures irreversible cell-cycle entry even if conditions later become unfavorable. The physiological factors that control passage through the Start checkpoint include external nutrient concentrations, presence of...
- Mannan Oligosaccharides (MOS)