Swedish-Novgorodian Wars
Encyclopedia
Swedish–Novgorodian Wars were a series of conflicts in the 12th and 13th centuries between the Republic of Novgorod and medieval Sweden
over control of the Gulf of Finland
, an area vital to the Hanseatic League
and part of the Varangian-Byzantine trade route. The Swedish attacks against Orthodox Russians
had religious overtones, but before the 14th century there is no knowledge of official Crusade bull
s issued by the Pope
.
had their own trading house, Gutagård, and the S:t Olof church in Novgorod. There were also isolated Scandinavian raids on Novgorod. Eiríkr Hákonarson
raided Ladoga in 997, followed by his brother Sveinn Hákonarson
in 1015. After Yaroslav I
's marriage to Ingegerd of Sweden
in 1019, Ladoga was made a jarldom in the orbit of Kievan Rus. It was ruled by Ragnvald Ulfsson
, father of King Stenkil. There were dynastic marriages between Russian and Scandiniavian royal families e.g Stenkil's granddaughter Christina married Mstislav of Novgorod
, upon whose death in 1132 Novgorod seceded from Kievan Rus.
The major turning point into more permanent conflict between Sweden and Novogord arrived with Sweden's firmer organization into the Catholic church in the 12th century and papal requests for crusades against lands controlled by the Orthodox
church.
The 12th century is poorly documented in Sweden, and Russian documents are fragmented. From the surviving sources, however, it seems evident that the newly founded republic and Sweden drifted into hostilities that could not be permanently settled ever again.
According to the First Novgorod Chronicle, the Swedish troops attacked the Novgorod merchants somewhere in the Baltic Sea
region and killed 150 Novgorodians in 1142. It is the first known case of hostilities between Sweden and Novgorod. In 1164, a strong Swedish fleet approached Ladoga but was soundly defeated with most of its ships captured by Novgorod.
It is also claimed that Novgorodians and their Karelia
n allies launched pirate raids against mainland Sweden
during the 12th century . During one of such raid, as a legend has it, they brought to Novgorod the doors
of the Sigtuna
cathedral as a prize. However, there is no certainty on the background of the destroyers of Sigtuna. Swedish sources call them just "heathens" and Novgorodian sources say no word about the event, which would be least expected had they conducted it. Swedish sources also claim that Jon jarl
spent nine years fighting against Novgorodians and Ingrians at the end of the 12th century. These expeditions are not documented in Russian sources.
, who was elevated to the position of jarl
in 1248. The only enemy leader named by the chronicle was "Spiridon" who was killed in the battle. Attempts to identify Spiridon with Birger have been made
Soon after their fleet entered the mouth of the Neva River
, the Swedes were roundly defeated in the famous Battle of the Neva
by a young prince, Alexander of Novgorod
, who would later be given the epithet
"Nevsky" to memorialize this victory.
From then on, Sweden moved its interest to Finland. Its troops did not return to Neva before the end of the 13th century, when it had gained solid control of Finland. Earlier, Swedes had also tried to establish a bridgehead in Estonia
, in vain
.
, a country which Russian forces sacked on numerous occasions
from the 11th century onward. The raid in winter 1226-1227 led to heavy losses on the Finnish side. A Finnish retaliatory raid against Ladoga in 1228 ended in disaster, contributing to the Finns' subjugation by the Catholic Swedes during the Second Swedish Crusade
in 1249. Seven years later, the Novgorodians devastated Swedish Finland again.
In 1293 the Swedes won a part of western Karelia and built the fortress of Viborg
(Russian: Vyborg) there. This expedition has traditionally been dubbed as the Third Swedish Crusade
. Seven years later, they founded the fortress of Landskrona in the mouth of Neva, on the river Okhta, and ruined the Novgorod settlements on the Neva. Later that year, the Novgorod troops retaliated by destroying Landskrona.
In the early 14th century, military tensions escalated and the two powers were continually at war. In 1311, the Novgorodians devastated central Finland
, where the Swedes had recently built a new castle
. In response, a Swedish fleet embarked towards Ladoga and set that trade emporium on fire. Three years later, the Karelians
' discontent with Novgorod's rule broke out into the open, as they killed Russian governors and sought for help in Sweden. After several months of hostilities, Karelia submitted to Novgorod's authority again.
In 1318, Novgorod attacked Turku
in southwestern Finland, burning the city and the cathedral as well as the episcopal castle in Kuusisto
. Four years later, they besieged Viborg
and founded Oreshek, an important fortress dominating the entrance to Lake Ladoga
.
(August 12, 1323), followed by the Treaty of Novgorod between Novgorod and Norway
in 1326. The treaties were expected to bring "eternal peace" to the region, but turned out to provide only a temporary palliative.
As early as 1328, Sweden was encouraging settlers to take over the northern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia
, which was defined by the treaty as Novgorod's possession. When Karelians
rebelled against Novgorod in 1337, King Magnus Eriksson
sent his troops in their support, managing to briefly occupy Korela Fortress
. Next year, Novgorod besieged Viborg but an armistice was soon agreed upon.
After ten years of peace, the king felt ready to renew hostilities and demanded the Novgorodians to recognise the Pope's authority. According to the Novgorodian First
and Fourth
Chronicles, the king demanded that the Novgorodians debate with his "philosophers" (Catholic theologians) and whoever lost would become the religion of the winner. Novgorodian Archbishop Vasily Kalika
conferred with the posadnik
and other members of the city's elite and told the king that, since they had received Christianity from Constantinople
, he ought to send his philosophers there to debate with the Byzantine
s. Having received such a response, the king sent his army to Oreshek and set it ablaze. Novgorod soon recovered the lost ground.
The king attempted yet another fruitless attack in 1350. In the same year, the Black Death
broke out in Northern Europe, effectively ending further hostilities.
nearby. Novgorod assaulted it in 1377, but was unable to take it. In the following year, Pope Gregory XI
intervened and issued a crusade bull against Novgorod. Soon afterwards the Russians retreated from Ostrobothnia, leaving it for the Swedes.
In the late 14th century, the Novgorodians set up the fiefs of Korela, Oreshek, Koporye
, Luga, and Ladoga
as a sort of buffer state
between their core dominions and Sweden. Several Lithuania
n dukes renowned for their military skills were invited to rule this Ingria
n duchy: Narimantas, his son Patrikas
, and then Lengvenis
. They helped fortify the Russian-Swedish border and built several new forts in the region, including one in Yama.
Hostilities between the two powers were renewed in 1392 and 1411. However, Sweden had, by then, become a member state in the quarrelsome Union of Kalmar, and was preoccupied by the Scandinavian power struggle for the entire 15th century. The last conflict took place in 1445, several decades before Novgorod was absorbed into Muscovy. Novgorod's demise did not result in peace, however, and conflict continued between Russia
and Sweden until the early 19th century.
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
over control of the Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Finland
The Gulf of Finland is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It extends between Finland and Estonia all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn...
, an area vital to the Hanseatic League
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
and part of the Varangian-Byzantine trade route. The Swedish attacks against Orthodox Russians
Russian Orthodox Church
The Russian Orthodox Church or, alternatively, the Moscow Patriarchate The ROC is often said to be the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world; including all the autocephalous churches under its umbrella, its adherents number over 150 million worldwide—about half of the 300 million...
had religious overtones, but before the 14th century there is no knowledge of official Crusade bull
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
s issued by the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
.
Background
Scandinavians enjoyed trade- and other relations with Novgorod from the Viking Ages onwards. Merchants from GotlandGotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
had their own trading house, Gutagård, and the S:t Olof church in Novgorod. There were also isolated Scandinavian raids on Novgorod. Eiríkr Hákonarson
Eiríkr Hákonarson
Eiríkr Hákonarson or Eric of Norway or Eric of Hlathir was earl of Lade, ruler of Norway and earl of Northumbria.-Background:...
raided Ladoga in 997, followed by his brother Sveinn Hákonarson
Sveinn Hákonarson
Sveinn Hákonarson was an earl of the house of Hlaðir and co-ruler of Norway from 1000 to c. 1015. He was the son of earl Hákon Sigurðarson. He is first mentioned in connection with the battle of Hjörungavágr, where the Heimskringla says he commanded 60 ships...
in 1015. After Yaroslav I
Yaroslav I the Wise
Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise (Old Norse: Jarizleifr; ; Old East Slavic and Russian: Ярослав Мудрый; Ukrainian: Ярослав Мудрий; c...
's marriage to Ingegerd of Sweden
Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden
Princess Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden also known as Irene, Anna and St. Anna , was a Swedish princess and a Grand Princess of Kiev. She was the daughter of Swedish King Olof Skötkonung and Estrid of the Obotrites and the consort of Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev.Ingegerd or St. Anna is often...
in 1019, Ladoga was made a jarldom in the orbit of Kievan Rus. It was ruled by Ragnvald Ulfsson
Ragnvald Ulfsson
Ragnvald Ulfsson the Old was a jarl of Västergötland or Östergötland, and married to a sister of Olav Tryggvason.Ragnvald is mentioned in the skaldic poem Austrfaravísur, ascribed to Sigvatr Þórðarson, skald of King Olaf Haraldsson of Norway , who had been on a diplomatic mission to Sweden...
, father of King Stenkil. There were dynastic marriages between Russian and Scandiniavian royal families e.g Stenkil's granddaughter Christina married Mstislav of Novgorod
Mstislav I of Kiev
Mstislav I Vladimirovich the Great was the Grand Prince of Kiev , the eldest son of Vladimir II Monomakh by Gytha of Wessex...
, upon whose death in 1132 Novgorod seceded from Kievan Rus.
The major turning point into more permanent conflict between Sweden and Novogord arrived with Sweden's firmer organization into the Catholic church in the 12th century and papal requests for crusades against lands controlled by the Orthodox
Orthodox
Orthodox may refer to:In music:* Orthodox , album by the Czech death metal band KrabathorIn science:* File manager#Orthodox file managers in computing* Orthodox seed, seed which may be preserved via drying or freezing...
church.
Fighting resumes
According to the First Novgorod Chronicle, the Swedish troops attacked the Novgorod merchants somewhere in the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
region and killed 150 Novgorodians in 1142. It is the first known case of hostilities between Sweden and Novgorod. In 1164, a strong Swedish fleet approached Ladoga but was soundly defeated with most of its ships captured by Novgorod.
It is also claimed that Novgorodians and their Karelia
Karelia
Karelia , the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Finland, Russia, and Sweden...
n allies launched pirate raids against mainland Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
during the 12th century . During one of such raid, as a legend has it, they brought to Novgorod the doors
Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod
The Cathedral of St. Sophia in the Kremlin in Veliky Novgorod is the cathedral church of the Archbishop of Novgorod and the mother church of the Novgorodian Eparchy.-History:...
of the Sigtuna
Sigtuna
Sigtuna is a locality situated in Sigtuna Municipality, Stockholm County, Sweden with 18 inhabitants in 2005. It is the namesake of the municipality even though the seat is in Märsta....
cathedral as a prize. However, there is no certainty on the background of the destroyers of Sigtuna. Swedish sources call them just "heathens" and Novgorodian sources say no word about the event, which would be least expected had they conducted it. Swedish sources also claim that Jon jarl
Jon Jarl
Jon Jarl was a legendary Swedish jarl at the end of the 12th and in the early 13th centuries. He is mentioned in Eric's Chronicle from the 1320s to have spent years fighting against Russians and Ingrians in the early Swedish-Novgorodian Wars...
spent nine years fighting against Novgorodians and Ingrians at the end of the 12th century. These expeditions are not documented in Russian sources.
Battle of the Neva
After a long pause in open hostilities, Swedes undertook an attack against Novgorod in 1240. Only source of information on the attack is the First Primary Chronicle written 100 years after the attack. The attack has been speculated to have been led by Birger MagnussonBirger jarl
, or Birger Magnusson, was a Swedish statesman, Jarl of Sweden and a member of the House of Bjelbo, who played a pivotal role in the consolidation of Sweden. Birger also led the Second Swedish Crusade, which established Swedish rule in Finland. Additionally, he is traditionally attributed to have...
, who was elevated to the position of jarl
Jarl in Sweden
In Sweden, members of medieval royal families, such as the House of Stenkil and House of Bjelbo, held the title of jarl before their accession to the throne. Since the early 12th century, there usually was only one holder of the title at a time, second only to the King of Sweden.For special...
in 1248. The only enemy leader named by the chronicle was "Spiridon" who was killed in the battle. Attempts to identify Spiridon with Birger have been made
Soon after their fleet entered the mouth of the Neva River
Neva River
The Neva is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast to the Neva Bay of the Gulf of Finland. Despite its modest length , it is the third largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge .The Neva is the only river flowing from Lake...
, the Swedes were roundly defeated in the famous Battle of the Neva
Battle of the Neva
The Battle of the Neva was fought between the Novgorod Republic and Swedish armies on the Neva River, near the settlement of Ust-Izhora, on July 15, 1240...
by a young prince, Alexander of Novgorod
Alexander Nevsky
Alexander Nevsky was the Prince of Novgorod and Grand Prince of Vladimir during some of the most trying times in the city's history. Commonly regarded as the key figure of medieval Rus, Alexander was the grandson of Vsevolod the Big Nest and rose to legendary status on account of his military...
, who would later be given the epithet
Victory title
A victory title is an honorific title adopted by a successful military commander to commemorate his defeat of an enemy nation. This practice was first used by Ancient Rome and is still most commonly associated with the Romans, but it has also been adopted as a practice by many modern empires,...
"Nevsky" to memorialize this victory.
From then on, Sweden moved its interest to Finland. Its troops did not return to Neva before the end of the 13th century, when it had gained solid control of Finland. Earlier, Swedes had also tried to establish a bridgehead in Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
, in vain
Battle of Lihula
Battle of Lihula was fought between invading Swedes and Estonians for the control of a castle in Lihula, Estonia in 1220. The exact date remains uncertain, though some historians suggest that the battle took place on August 8...
.
Focus moves to Finland
Apart from Ladoga, Novgorodian interests clashed with Sweden's in FinlandFinland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, a country which Russian forces sacked on numerous occasions
Finnish-Novgorodian wars
The Finnish–Novgorodian wars were a series of conflicts that took place between Finnic tribes in eastern Fennoscandia called "Yem", and the Republic of Novgorod from the 11th or 12th century to early 13th century. The wars seem to have contributed to the eventual Swedish conquest of Finland in...
from the 11th century onward. The raid in winter 1226-1227 led to heavy losses on the Finnish side. A Finnish retaliatory raid against Ladoga in 1228 ended in disaster, contributing to the Finns' subjugation by the Catholic Swedes during the Second Swedish Crusade
Second Swedish Crusade
The Second Swedish Crusade was a Swedish military expedition to areas in present-day Finland by Birger jarl in the 13th century. As a result of the crusade, Finland became permanently part of Sweden for the next 550 years.-Year of the crusade:...
in 1249. Seven years later, the Novgorodians devastated Swedish Finland again.
Vyborg
Vyborg is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of the Bay of Vyborg, to the northwest of St. Petersburg and south from Russia's border with Finland, where the Saimaa Canal enters the Gulf of Finland...
(Russian: Vyborg) there. This expedition has traditionally been dubbed as the Third Swedish Crusade
Third Swedish Crusade
The Third Swedish Crusade was a Swedish military expedition to Karelia in 1293, an area controlled by Novgorod. As the result of the attack, Viborg Castle was established and western Karelia remained under Swedish rule for over 400 years....
. Seven years later, they founded the fortress of Landskrona in the mouth of Neva, on the river Okhta, and ruined the Novgorod settlements on the Neva. Later that year, the Novgorod troops retaliated by destroying Landskrona.
In the early 14th century, military tensions escalated and the two powers were continually at war. In 1311, the Novgorodians devastated central Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, where the Swedes had recently built a new castle
Hakoinen Castle
Hakoinen Castle are the ruins of a fortification on a hill in Janakkala, Finland. Dated medieval, the fortification was situated on a very steep rock by lake Kernaala reminiscent of a hill fort tradition. The top of the rock is 63 metres above the water level in the lake. Today very little...
. In response, a Swedish fleet embarked towards Ladoga and set that trade emporium on fire. Three years later, the Karelians
Karelians
The Karelians are a Baltic-Finnic ethnic group living mostly in the Republic of Karelia and in other north-western parts of the Russian Federation. The historic homeland of Karelians includes also parts of present-day Eastern Finland and the formerly Finnish territory of Ladoga Karelia...
' discontent with Novgorod's rule broke out into the open, as they killed Russian governors and sought for help in Sweden. After several months of hostilities, Karelia submitted to Novgorod's authority again.
In 1318, Novgorod attacked Turku
Turku
Turku is a city situated on the southwest coast of Finland at the mouth of the Aura River. It is located in the region of Finland Proper. It is believed that Turku came into existence during the end of the 13th century which makes it the oldest city in Finland...
in southwestern Finland, burning the city and the cathedral as well as the episcopal castle in Kuusisto
Kuusisto Castle
Kuusisto Castle was a medieval episcopal castle on an island of Kuusisto in Kaarina, Finland, near Turku. The castle was probably built in the early 14th century, although the site seems to have been bishop's residence already in the 1290s.The castle was ordered to be demolished during the...
. Four years later, they besieged Viborg
Vyborg
Vyborg is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the Karelian Isthmus near the head of the Bay of Vyborg, to the northwest of St. Petersburg and south from Russia's border with Finland, where the Saimaa Canal enters the Gulf of Finland...
and founded Oreshek, an important fortress dominating the entrance to Lake Ladoga
Lake Ladoga
Lake Ladoga is a freshwater lake located in the Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia, not far from Saint Petersburg. It is the largest lake in Europe, and the 14th largest lake by area in the world.-Geography:...
.
Treaty of Nöteborg and its aftermath
The first treaty concluded by the parties to the conflict was the Treaty of NöteborgTreaty of Nöteborg
Treaty of Nöteborg, also known as Treaty of Oreshek , is a conventional name for the peace treaty that was signed at Orekhovets on August 12, 1323. It was the first settlement between Sweden and Novgorod Republic regulating their border...
(August 12, 1323), followed by the Treaty of Novgorod between Novgorod and Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
in 1326. The treaties were expected to bring "eternal peace" to the region, but turned out to provide only a temporary palliative.
As early as 1328, Sweden was encouraging settlers to take over the northern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Bothnia
The Gulf of Bothnia is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It is situated between Finland's west coast and Sweden's east coast. In the south of the gulf lie the Åland Islands, between the Sea of Åland and the Archipelago Sea.-Name:...
, which was defined by the treaty as Novgorod's possession. When Karelians
Karelians
The Karelians are a Baltic-Finnic ethnic group living mostly in the Republic of Karelia and in other north-western parts of the Russian Federation. The historic homeland of Karelians includes also parts of present-day Eastern Finland and the formerly Finnish territory of Ladoga Karelia...
rebelled against Novgorod in 1337, King Magnus Eriksson
Magnus IV of Sweden
Magnus Eriksson as Magnus IV was king of Sweden , including Finland, as Magnus VII King of Norway , including Iceland and Greenland, and also ruled Scania . He has also vindictively been called Magnus Smek...
sent his troops in their support, managing to briefly occupy Korela Fortress
Korela Fortress
Korela Fortress , at the town of Priozersk, was founded by the Karelians who named the place Käkisalmi.- Origin :...
. Next year, Novgorod besieged Viborg but an armistice was soon agreed upon.
After ten years of peace, the king felt ready to renew hostilities and demanded the Novgorodians to recognise the Pope's authority. According to the Novgorodian First
Novgorod First Chronicle
The Novgorod First Chronicle or The Chronicle of Novgorod, 1016-1471 is the most ancient extant chronicle of the Novgorod Republic. It reflects a tradition different from the Kievan Primary Chronicle...
and Fourth
Novgorod Fourth Chronicle
The Novgorod Fourth Chronicle is a Russian chronicle of 15th century. It is traditionally called "Fourth" according to the order of the modern publication of Novgorod chronicles, rather than chronologically....
Chronicles, the king demanded that the Novgorodians debate with his "philosophers" (Catholic theologians) and whoever lost would become the religion of the winner. Novgorodian Archbishop Vasily Kalika
Vasily Kalika
Vasilii Kalika was Archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov from 1330 to 1352. He is in large part responsible for reinvigorating the office after it had fallen into decline to some extent following the Mongol Invasion.-Background:...
conferred with the posadnik
Posadnik
Posadnik was the mayor in some East Slavic cities or towns. Most notably, the posadnik was the mayor of Novgorod and Pskov...
and other members of the city's elite and told the king that, since they had received Christianity from Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, he ought to send his philosophers there to debate with the Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
s. Having received such a response, the king sent his army to Oreshek and set it ablaze. Novgorod soon recovered the lost ground.
The king attempted yet another fruitless attack in 1350. In the same year, the Black Death
Black Death
The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. Of several competing theories, the dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Thought to have...
broke out in Northern Europe, effectively ending further hostilities.
Later developments
Later skirmishes were more sporadic. Sweden's attempts to control the Gulf of Bothnia provoked Novgorod to start construction of a castle near the Oulu River delta in the 1370s. Sweden replied by establishing their own castleOulu Castle
Oulu Castle was a late defense castle in Oulu, Finland. It was built on an island in the delta of Oulu River in 1590. The castle was mostly made of wood and earth walls. There probably was an earlier medieval castle on the same site latest by 1375...
nearby. Novgorod assaulted it in 1377, but was unable to take it. In the following year, Pope Gregory XI
Pope Gregory XI
Gregory XI was pope from 1370 until his death.-Biography:He was born Pierre Roger de Beaufort, in Maumont, in the modern commune of Rosiers-d'Égletons, Limousin around 1336. He succeeded Pope Urban V in 1370, and was pope until 1378...
intervened and issued a crusade bull against Novgorod. Soon afterwards the Russians retreated from Ostrobothnia, leaving it for the Swedes.
In the late 14th century, the Novgorodians set up the fiefs of Korela, Oreshek, Koporye
Koporye
Koporye is a historic village in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located about 100 km to the west of St. Petersburg and 12 km south of the Koporye Bay of the Baltic Sea...
, Luga, and Ladoga
Staraya Ladoga
Staraya Ladoga , or the Aldeigjuborg of Norse sagas, is a village in the Volkhovsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the Volkhov River near Lake Ladoga, 8 km north of the town of Volkhov. The village used to be a prosperous trading outpost in the 8th and 9th centuries...
as a sort of buffer state
Buffer state
A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. Buffer states, when authentically independent, typically pursue a neutralist foreign policy, which distinguishes them from satellite...
between their core dominions and Sweden. Several Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
n dukes renowned for their military skills were invited to rule this Ingria
Ingria
Ingria is a historical region in the eastern Baltic, now part of Russia, comprising the southern bank of the river Neva, between the Gulf of Finland, the Narva River, Lake Peipus in the west, and Lake Ladoga and the western bank of the Volkhov river in the east...
n duchy: Narimantas, his son Patrikas
Patrikas
Patrikas Narimantaitis was a grandson of Gediminas who exchanged his lands in and near Starodub in Siveria for the Korela and Oreshek fortresses in the Novgorod Republic. He also founded the town of Yamburg in Ingria...
, and then Lengvenis
Lengvenis
Lengvenis was one of the sons of Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the ruler of Great Novgorod Republic . He was known for his skills as a military leader....
. They helped fortify the Russian-Swedish border and built several new forts in the region, including one in Yama.
Hostilities between the two powers were renewed in 1392 and 1411. However, Sweden had, by then, become a member state in the quarrelsome Union of Kalmar, and was preoccupied by the Scandinavian power struggle for the entire 15th century. The last conflict took place in 1445, several decades before Novgorod was absorbed into Muscovy. Novgorod's demise did not result in peace, however, and conflict continued between Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and Sweden until the early 19th century.