The TI-990 was a series of 16-bit

16-bit

-16-bit architecture:The HP BPC, introduced in 1975, was the world's first 16-bit microprocessor. Prominent 16-bit processors include the PDP-11, Intel 8086, Intel 80286 and the WDC 65C816. The Intel 8088 was program-compatible with the Intel 8086, and was 16-bit in that its registers were 16...

 minicomputer

Minicomputer

A minicomputer is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user systems and the smallest single-user systems...

s sold by Texas Instruments

Texas Instruments

Texas Instruments Inc. , widely known as TI, is an American company based in Dallas, Texas, United States, which develops and commercializes semiconductor and computer technology...

 (TI) in the 1970s and 1980s. The TI-990 was a replacement for TI's earlier minicomputer systems, the TI-960 and the TI-980. It had several uniquely innovative features, and was easier to program than its predecessors.

Workspaces

The TI-990 had a unique concept that registers are stored in memory and are referred to through a hard register called the Workspace Pointer. The concept behind the workspace is that main memory was based on the new semiconductor RAM chips that TI had developed and ran at the same speed as the CPU. This meant that it didn't matter if the "registers" were real registers in the CPU or represented in memory. When the Workspace Pointer is loaded with a memory address, that address is the origin of the "registers".

There are three hard registers in the 990; the Workspace Pointer (WP), the Program Counter (PC) and the Status register (ST). A context switch entailed the saving and restoring of only the hard registers.

Extended Operation

The TI-990 had a facility to allow extended operations through the use of plug in hardware. If the hardware is not present the CPU traps to allow software to perform the function. The operation code (XOP) allowed for 15 attached devices on a system. Although, device 15 is reserved, by convention, to be used as the systems
call entry for user programs to request systems services.

Instruction set

Programmers liked the TI-990 design because it had a fairly orthogonal instruction set

Orthogonal instruction set

Orthogonal instruction set is a term used in computer engineering. A computer's instruction set is said to be orthogonal if any instruction can use data of any type via any addressing mode...

 which allowed a programmer to separately memorize all of the operations and the methods of accessing operand

Operand

In mathematics, an operand is the object of a mathematical operation, a quantity on which an operation is performed.-Example :The following arithmetic expression shows an example of operators and operands:3 + 6 = 9\;...

s.

The basic instruction formats allowed for one, two and three word instructions. The model 990/12 CPU allowed for a four word instruction with the extended mode operations.

General register addressing mode

Addressing mode

Addressing modes are an aspect of the instruction set architecture in most central processing unit designs. The various addressing modes that are defined in a given instruction set architecture define how machine language instructions in that architecture identify the operand of each instruction...

s

(R is a general register, 0 to 15.)

0. Register - the value is to or from a register: OPR R ; R contains operand

1. Indirect register - register is used as a memory address to read or write: OPR *R ; R contains address

2. Indexed: OPR @MEM(R); R contains index value, R0 is not used in indexing and allows direct memory addressing

3. Autoincrement: OPR *R+ ; R contains address of address, then increment R by the length of the operand type

Several registers had special usages that reserve their use, the register and their usages are:

• R0 - shift counter, extended mode counter, floating point AC-0
• R1 - floating point AC-1
• R2 - floating point AC-2
• R3 - floating point AC-3
• R11 - XOP pointer (kernel mode), return linkage
• R12 - CRU base address (kernel mode)
• R13 - Saved Workspace pointer
• R14 - Saved Program counter
• R15 - Saved Status

TI-990 instructions

The 990/4, 990/5, 990/9 instruction sets consisted of 69 instructions, the 990/10 had 72 instructions, the 990/10A had 77 instructions and the 990/12 had 144 instructions. The instructions are divided into types that have similar characteristics.
The first part of the word specifies the operation to be performed, the remaining two parts provide information for locating the operands.

• MOV (move word)
• MOVB (move byte)
• A (add word)
• AB (add byte)
• S (subtract word)
• SB (subtract byte)
• C (compare word)
• CB (compare byte)
• SZC (set zeros corresponding word)
• SZCB (set zeros corresponding byte)
• SOC (set ones corresponding word)
• SOCB (set ones corresponding byte)

The first part of the word specifies the operation to be performed, the second part is a relative offset to where to go, for JMP instructions, or the relative offset for CRU bit addressing.

• JMP (jump unconditionally)
• JLT (jump if less than zero)
• JLE (jump if less than or equal to zero)
• JEQ (jump if zero)
• JHE (jump if logically greater than or equal to zero)
• JGT (jump if greater than zero)
• JNE (jump if not equal zero)
• JNC (jump if carry clear)
• JOC (jump if carry set)
• JNO (jump if overflow clear)
• JL (jump if logically less than zero)
• JH (jump if logically greater than zero)
• SBO (set CRU bit to one)
• SBZ (set CRU bit to zero)
• TB (test CRU bit)

One part of the word specifies the operation, the second part provides the register, the third part provides information for locating the second operand.

• COC (compare ones corresponding)
• CZC (compare zeros corresponding)
• XOR (exclusive or)
• XOP (extended operation)

The first part of the word specifies the operation to be performed, the second part is the bit width of the operation, the third part provides information for locating the second operand.

• LDCR (load CRU)
• STCR (store CRU)

The first part of the word specifies the operation to be performed, the second part is the shift count, the third part specifies the register to shift.

• SRA (shift right arithmetic)
• SRL (shift right logical)
• SLA (shift left arithmetic)
• SRC (shift right circular)

The first part specifies the operation to be performed, the second part provides information for locating the second operand.

• BLWP (brach and load workspace pointer)
• B (branch)
• X (execute)
• CLR (clear word)
• NEG (twos complement negate)
• INV (ones complement)
• INC (increment)
• INCT (increment by two)
• DEC (decrement)
• DECT (decrement by two)
• BL (branch and link)
• ABS (absolute value)
• SWPB (swap bytes)
• SETO (set word to ones)
• LDS (long distance source, 990/10, 990/10A, 990/12)
• LDD (long distance destination, 990/10, 990/10A, 990/12)
• BIND (branch indirect, 990/10A, 990/12)
• MPYS (multiply signed, 990/10A, 990/12)
• DIVS (divide signed, 990/10A, 990/12)
• AR (add real, 990/12)
• CIR (convert integer to real, 990/12)
• SR (subtract real, 990/12)
• MR (multiply real, 990/12)
• DR (divide real, 990/12)
• LR (load real, 990/12)
• STR (store real, 990/12)
• AD (add double, 990/12)
• CID (convert integer to double, 990/12)
• SD (subtract double, 990/12)
• MD (multiply double, 990/12)
• DD (divide double, 990/12)
• LD (load double, 990/12)
• STD (store double, 990/12)

The word specified the operation to be performed.

• IDLE (cpu idle)
• RSET (cpu reset)
• RTWP (return workspace pointer)
• CKON (clock on)
• CKOF (clock off)
• LREX (load ROM and execute)
• EMD (execute micro diagnostic, 990/12)
• EINT (enable interrupt, 990/12)
• DINT (disable interrupt, 990/12)
• CRI (convert real to integer, 990/12)
• CDI (convert double to integer, 990/12)
• NEGR (negate real, 990/12)
• NEGD (negate double, 990/12)
• CRE (convert real to extended integer, 990/12)
• CDE (convert double to extended integer, 990/12)
• CER (convert extended integer to real, 990/12)
• CED (convert extended integer to double, 990/12)
• XIT (exit floating point - nop, 990/12)

The first part specifies the operation, the second part specifies the register or mask. The third part, if present, specifies an immediate operand in a second word.

• LIMI (load interrupt mask immediate)
• LI (load immediate)
• AI (add immediate)
• ANDI (and immediate)
• ORI (or immediate)
• CI (compare immediate)
• STWP (store workspace pointer)
• STST (store status)
• LWPI (load workspace pointer immediate)
• BLSK (branch immediate push link onto stack, 990/12)

One part of the word specifies the operation, the second part provides the register, the third part provides information for locating the second operand.

• MPY (unsigned multiply)
• DIV (unsigned divide)

The first part specifies the operation, the second part specifies the map file (0=kernel, 1=user) and the third specifies a register.
This instruction supported on the 990/10, 990/10A and 990/12.

• LMF (load map file)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the byte count field, the second part is the destination operand and the third part is the source operand. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• NRM (normalize)
• RTO (right test for ones)
• LTO (left test for ones)
• CNTO (count ones)
• BDC (binary to decimal conversion)
• DBC (decimal to binary conversion)
• SWPM (swap multiple)
• XORM (xor multiple)
• ORM (or multiple)
• ANDM (and multiple)
• SM (subtract multiple)
• AM (add multiple)

The first part of the first word is the opcode, the second part of the first word indicates a checkpoint register; the first part of the second word is the byte count field, the second part is the destination operand and the third part is the source operand. These instruction supported on the 990/12.

• SNEB (search string for not equal byte)
• CRC (cyclic redundancy code calculation)
• TS (translate string)
• CS (compare string)
• SEQB (search string for equal byte)
• MOVS (move string)
• MVSR (move string reversed)
• MVSK (move string from stack)
• POPS (pop string from stack)
• PSHS (push string to stack)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the byte count field, the second part is the shift count and the third part is the source operand. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• SRAM (shift right arithmetic multiple)
• SLAM (shift left arithmetic multiple)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the position field and the second part is the source operand. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• TMB (test memory bit)
• TCMB (test and clear memory bit)
• TSMB (test and set memory bit)

The first part of the first word is the opcode, the second part of the first word indicates a width; the first part of the second word is the position, the second part is the source operand. This instruction supported on the 990/12.

• IOF (invert order of field)

The first part of the first word is the opcode, the second part of the first word indicates a width; the first part of the second word is the position, the second part is the destination operand and the third part is the source operand. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• INSF (insert field)
• XV (extract value)
• XF (extract field)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the value field and the second part is the register and the third part is the relative offset. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• SRJ (subtract value from register and jump)
• ARJ (add value to register and jump)

The first part of the word is the opcode and the second part is the register specification. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• STPC (store PC in register)
• LIM (load interrupt mask from register)
• LST (load status register)
• LWP (load workspace pointer)
• LCS (load control store)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the is the destination operand and the second part is the source operand. This instruction supported on the 990/12.

• MOVA (move address)

The first word is the opcode; the first part of the second word is the condition code field, the second part is the destination operand and the third part is the source operand. These instructions supported on the 990/12.

• SLSL (search list logical address)
• SLSP (search list physical address)

The first part of the first word is the opcode, the second part of the first word specifies the destination length; the first part of the second word specifies the source length, the second part is the destination operand and the third part is the source operand. This instruction supported on the 990/12.

• EP (extend precision)

Assembly Language Programming Example

A complete "Hello, world!

Hello world program

A "Hello world" program is a computer program that outputs "Hello world" on a display device. Because it is typically one of the simplest programs possible in most programming languages, it is by tradition often used to illustrate to beginners the most basic syntax of a programming language, or to...

" program in TI-990 assembler, to run under DX10:

IDT 'HELLO'
TITL 'HELLO - hello world program'
*
DXOP SVC,15 Define SVC
TMLUNO EQU 0 Terminal LUNO
*
R0 EQU 0
R1 EQU 1
R2 EQU 2
R3 EQU 3
R4 EQU 4
R5 EQU 5
R6 EQU 6
R7 EQU 7
R8 EQU 8
R9 EQU 9
R10 EQU 10
R11 EQU 11
R12 EQU 12
R13 EQU 13
R14 EQU 14
R15 EQU 15
*
DATA WP,ENTRY,0
*
* Workspace (On the 990 we can "preload" registers)
*
WP DATA 0 R0
DATA 0 R1
DATA >1600 R2 - End of program SVC
DATA >0000 R3 - Open I/O opcode
DATA >0B00 R4 - Write I/O opcode
DATA >0100 R5 - Close I/O opcode
DATA STRING R6 - Message address
DATA STRLEN R7 - Message length
DATA 0 R8
DATA 0 R9
DATA 0 R10
DATA 0 R11
DATA 0 R12
DATA 0 R13
DATA 0 R14
DATA 0 R15
*
* Terminal SVC block
*
TRMSCB BYTE 0 SVC op code (0 = I/O)
TRMERR BYTE 0 Error code
TRMOPC BYTE 0 I/O OP CODE
TRMLUN BYTE TMLUNO LUNO
TRMFLG DATA 0 Flags
TRMBUF DATA $-$ Buffer address
TRMLRL DATA $-$ Logical record length
TRMCHC DATA $-$ Character count
*
* Message
*
STRING TEXT 'Hello world!'
BYTE >D,>A
STRLEN EQU $-STRING
EVEN
PAGE
*
* Main program entry
*
ENTRY MOVB R3,@TRMOPC Set open opcode in SCB
SVC @TRMSCB Open terminal
MOVB @TRMERR,R0 Check for error
JNE EXIT
MOVB R4,@TRMOPC Set write opcode
MOV R6,@TRMBUF Set buffer address
MOV R7,@TRMLRL Set logical record length
MOV R7,@TRMCHC and character count
SVC @TRMSCB Write message
MOVB @TRMERR,R0 Check for error
JNE CLOSE
CLOSE MOVB R5,@TRMOPC Set close opcode
SVC @TRMSCB Close terminal
EXIT SVC R2 Exit program
*
END

You can try out the above for yourself on a TI-990 simulator. Dave Pitts's sim990 simulates the TI-990 and includes software kits for native operating systems (including DX10).

The following program is a standalone version that prints on the serial terminal connected to CRU address 0. It illustrates the CRU I/O and workspace linkage for the PRINT subroutine.

IDT 'HELLO'
TITL 'HELLO - hello world program'
*
R0 EQU 0
R1 EQU 1
R2 EQU 2
R3 EQU 3
R4 EQU 4
R5 EQU 5
R6 EQU 6
R7 EQU 7
R8 EQU 8
R9 EQU 9
R10 EQU 10
R11 EQU 11
R12 EQU 12
R13 EQU 13
R14 EQU 14
R15 EQU 15
*
* Terminal CRU bits
*
TRMCRU EQU >0 Terminal device address
XMIT EQU 8
DTR EQU 9
RTS EQU 10
WRQ EQU 11
RRQ EQU 12
NSF EQU 13
*
PAGE
*
* Main program entry
*
ENTRY LWPI WP Load our workspace pointer
BLWP @PRINT Call our print routine
DATA STRING
DATA STRLEN
IDLE
*
WP BSS 32 Main program workspace
*
* Message
*
STRING TEXT 'Hello world!'
BYTE >D,>A
STRLEN EQU $-STRING
EVEN
PAGE
*
* Print a message
*
PRINT DATA PRWS,PRENT
PRENT EQU $
MOV *R14+,R2 Get buffer address
MOV *R14+,R1 Get message length
SBO DTR Enable terminal ready
SBO RTS
PRI010 LDCR *R2+,8 Send out a character
TB WRQ Wait until done
JNE $-2
SBZ WRQ
DEC R1
JGT PRI010
RTWP
*
PRWS DATA 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0
DATA 0,0,0,0,TRMCRU,0,0,0
*
END ENTRY

TI-990 models

The TI-990 processors fell into several natural groups depending on the original design upon which they are based and which I/O bus they used.

All models supported the Communications Register Unit (CRU) which is a serial bit addressable I/O bus. Also, supported on higher end models was the TILINE I/O bus which is similar to DEC

Digital Equipment Corporation

Digital Equipment Corporation was a major American company in the computer industry and a leading vendor of computer systems, software and peripherals from the 1960s to the 1990s...

's popular UNIBUS

Unibus

The Unibus was the earliest of several computer bus technologies used with PDP-11 and early VAX systems manufactured by the Digital Equipment Corporation of Maynard, Massachusetts.-History:...

. The TILINE also supported a master/slave relationship that allowed multiple CPU boards in a common chassis with arbitration control.

TILINE/CRU models

The following models used the TILINE as their principal mass storage bus:

• TI-990/5 — TMS-9900
  Texas Instruments TMS9900
  Introduced in June 1976 and based on the Texas Instruments 990 minicomputer CPU, the TMS9900 was one of the first true 16-bit microprocessors...
  
   microprocessor with 64K bytes of memory
• TI-990/10 — TTL processor with memory mapping support to 2M bytes of memory
• TI-990/10A — TMS-99000 microprocessor with memory mapping support to 1M bytes of memory
• TI-990/12 — Schottky TTL processor with memory mapping to 2M bytes, workspace caching, hardware floating point, extended mode instructions and writeable control store

CRU only models

The following models used the CRU as their principal bus:

• TI-990/4 — TMS-9900
  Texas Instruments TMS9900
  Introduced in June 1976 and based on the Texas Instruments 990 minicomputer CPU, the TMS9900 was one of the first true 16-bit microprocessors...
  
   microprocessor with 56K bytes of memory
• TI-990/9 — The original TTL implementation

Operating systems

Several operating system

Operating system

An operating system is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system...

s were available for the TI-990

From TI:

• TX990/TXDS
• DX10
• DNOS

From third parties:

• UCSD Pascal

External links

• 990 Computer Family Systems Handbook
• 990 Assembler Reference Manual
• Dave Pitts' TI 990 page — Includes a simulator, cross assember, cross linker, utilities and Operating System images.
• Translator of SCI 990 to COBOL
• ti990.co.uk Site detailing the preservation and restoration of TI 990 series minicomputers