Technoethics
Encyclopedia
Technoethics is an interdisciplinary research area concerned with all moral and ethical aspects of technology in society. It draws on theories and methods from multiple knowledge domains to provide insights on ethical dimensions of technological systems and practices for advancing a technological society. Technoethics (TE) views technology and ethics as socially embedded enterprises and focuses on discovering the ethical
use of technology, protecting against the misuse of technology, and devising common principles to guide new advances in technological development and application to benefit society. Typically, scholars in technoethics have a tendency to conceptualize technology
and ethics
as interconnected and embedded in life and society
. Technoethics denotes a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology- from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life. Technoethical perspectives are constantly in transition as technology advances in areas unseen by creators, as users change the intended uses of new technologies. Humans cannot be separated from these technologies because it is an inherent part of consciousness and meaning in life therefore, requiring an ethical model. The short term and longer term ethical considerations for technologies do not just engage the creator and producer but makes the user question their beliefs in correspondence with this technology and how governments must allow, react to, change, and/or deny technologies.
. With the spurt in technological advances came technological inquiry. Societal views of technology were changing; people were becoming more critical of the developments that were occurring and scholars were emphasizing the need to understand and to take a deeper look and study the innovations. Associations were uniting scholars from different disciplines to study the various aspects of technology. The main disciplines being philosophy, social sciences and science and technology studies (STS). Though many technologies were already focused on ethics, each technology discipline was separated from each other, despite the potential for the information to intertwine and reinforce itself. As technologies became increasingly developed in each discipline, their ethical implications paralleled their development, and became increasingly complex. Each branch eventually became united, under the term Technoethics, so that all areas of technology could be studied and researched, based on existing, real world examples, and a variety of knowledge, rather than just discipline specific knowledge. This thus enriches the scope of the philosophy, and the ability to study it effectively.
Though the ethical consequences of new technologies have existed since Socrates's attack on writing in Plato's dialogue, Phaedrus, the formal field of Technoethics had only existed for a few decades. Technoethics is a rapidly expanding research area that evolved during the 1970s and 1980s from the confluence
of a variety of disciplines and disciplinary subfields which viewed Science and Technology as socially embedded enterprises. It developed as a grounding framework for a rapidly emerging body of scholarship dealing with the interconnection of technology and ethics embedded in society. It has roots in Science and Technology Studies
(STS), philosophy of technology
, and various sub-areas of Applied Ethics
which focus on technology. The term Technoethics was coined in 1977 by the philosopher Mario Bunge
to describe the responsibilities of technologists and scientists to develop ethics as a branch of technology. Bunge argued that the current state of technological progress was guided by ungrounded practices based on limited empirical evidence and trial-and-error learning. He recognized that “the technologist must be held not only technically but also morally responsible for whatever he designs or executes: not only should his artifacts be optimally efficient but, far from being harmful, they should be beneficial, and not only in the short run but also in the long term.” He recognized a pressing need in society to create a new field called ‘Technoethics’ to discover rationally grounded rules for guiding science and technological progress.
Key scholarly contributions linking ethics, technology, and society can be found in a number of seminal works: The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of Ethics for the Technological Age (Jonas, 1979), On Technology, Medicine and Ethics (Jonas, 1985), The Real World of Technology (Franklin, 1990), Thinking Ethics in Technology: Hennebach Lectures and Papers, 1995-1996 (Mitcham, 1997), Technology and the Good Life (Higgs, Light & Strong, 2000), and Readings in the Philosophy of Technology (Kaplin, 2004), and Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology (Tavani, 2004.). This resulting scholarly attention to ethical issues arising from technological transformations of work and life has helped given rise to a number of key areas (or branches) of technoethical inquiry under various research programs (I.e., computer ethics
, engineering ethics
, environmental technoethics, biotech ethics, Nanoethics, educational technoethics, information and communication ethics, media ethics
, and Internet ethics
).
Historical framing – 4 main periods:
orbits the earth, DNA
double helix structure discovered, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant
is the first nuclear power plant to be opened, the American nuclear tests take place
.
, ARPANET
created which leads to the later creation of the Internet
, industrial pollution become major issues after Cuyahoga river
catches fire and environmental acts are created, birth control pill, first heart transplantation
completed, Telstar
communications satellite is launched, rise of feminism
in society and women entering the workforce.
, further manned and unmanned moon landings, the green revolution
is underway along with second wave feminism as women continue to enter the workforce, C (computer language) is created for computer programming, 1970s recession, Supercomputers and the Personal Calculator
enter the mass market.
, the Chernobyl disaster
, the Exxon Valdez oil spill
, and video games become part of popular culture.
, Napster
and the rise of online piracy and file sharing
, Gulf War oil spill
, Y2K, beginning of email
, instant messaging
, pagers, cell phone, MP3 player, CD burner, satellite phone
, Linux
, Java
programming language created, Human Genome Project
begins, Dolly
the sheep is the first cloned
mammal
, Hubble telescope, Genetically Modified food
, and Mars Pathfinder
landing.
, Electronic commerce
, Dot-com bubble
, Robotics
, Telerobotics
, Wireless internet, social networking, Text messaging
, YouTube
, Wikipedia
, Cyber bullying, Large Hadron Collider
,
Climate change
, Global warming
, Mars Exploration Rover
.
, expanded together with a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich
in Germany
and spread across to France
, the United States
, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work.
, consequentialism
and deontological ethics is more than enough to deal with all the ethical issues emerging from our design and use of information technology.
For the phenomenologist the ‘impact view’ of technology
as well as the constructivist view of the technology/society relationships is valid but not adequate (Heidegger 1977, Borgmann 1985, Winograd and Flores 1987, Ihde 1990, Dreyfus 1992, 2001). They argue that these accounts of technology, and the technology
/society
relationship, posit technology
and society as if speaking about the one does not immediately and already draw upon the other for its ongoing sense or meaning. For the phenomenologist society
and technology
co-constitute each other; they are each other's ongoing condition or possibility for being what they are. For them technology is not just the artifact. Rather, the artifact already emerges from a prior ‘technological’ attitude towards the world (Heidegger 1977).
Heidegger claims that there were other times in human history, a pre-modern time, where humans did not orient themselves towards the world in a technological way—simply as resources for our purposes.
However, according to Heidegger this ‘pre-technological’ age (or mood) is one where humans’ relation with the world and artifacts, their way of being disposed, was poetic and aesthetic rather than technological (enframing).
There are many who disagree with Heidegger's account of the modern technological attitude as the ‘enframing’ of the world. For example Andrew Feenberg
argues that Heidegger's account of modern technology is not borne out in contemporary everyday encounters with technology
(1992) argues that the way skill development has become understood in the past has been wrong. He argues, this is the model that the early artificial intelligence community uncritically adopted. In opposition to this view he argues, with Heidegger, that what we observe when we learn a new skill in everyday practice is in fact the opposite. We most often start with explicit rules or preformulated approaches and then move to a multiplicity of particular cases, as we become an expert. His argument draws directly on Heidegger's account in Being and Time of humans as beings that are always already situated in-the-world. As humans ‘in-the-world’ we are already experts at going about everyday life, at dealing with the subtleties of every particular situation—that is why everyday life seems so obvious. Thus, the intricate expertise of everyday activity is forgotten and taken for granted by AI as an assumed starting point.
What Dreyfus highlighted in his critique of AI was the fact that technology (AI algorithms) does not make sense by itself. It is the assumed, and forgotten, horizon of everyday practice that make technological devices and solutions show up as meaningful. If we are to understand technology we need to ‘return’ to the horizon of meaning that made it show up as the artifacts we need, want and desire. We also need to consider how these technologies reveal (or disclose) us.
theme that has attracted some sustained attention from phenomenologists (especially with regard to its ethical implications)—the phenomenon of virtualization
or virtuality.
The term ‘virtuality’ is used here to refer to the mediation of interaction through an electronic medium between humans and humans as well as between humans and machines. The World Wide Web
(or Cyberspace as it is known in cultural discourse) is the most evident example of the virtualization
of interaction
The proponents of the virtualization
of society (and its institutions) argue that virtuality extends the social in unprecedented ways (Fernback 1997, Rheingold 1993a, 1993b, Turkle 1995, 1996, Benedikt 1991, Horn 1998). They argue that it opens up an entirely new domain of social being. For example Rheingold (1993a) argues that it offers “tools for facilitating all the various ways people have discovered to divide and communicate, group and subgroup and regroup, include and exclude, select and elect.
Turkle suggests that cyberspace makes possible the construction of an identity that is so fluid and multiple that it strains the very limits of the notion [of authenticity]. People become masters of self-presentation and self-creation. There is an unparalleled opportunity to play with one's identity and to ‘try out’ new ones. The very notion of an inner, ‘true self’ is called into question. An individual can literally decide to be who they wish to be. For example, the obese can be slender, the beautiful can be plain and the ‘nerdy’ can be elegant.
The claims by Rheingold, Turkle and others are certainly bold. If they are right then virtuality may indeed represent entirely new possibilities for humans to relate, extend, and express themselves, which should be encouraged, especially for those that have become excluded from the traditional domains of social relations, due to disability.
Phenomenologists would suggest that these responses are all important but they assume something more primary—i.e., the conditions that render such acts as the presentation of the self, ongoing communication and sharing meaningful and significant in the first instance. They might suggest that these social acts are all grounded in an already presumed sense of community. They might further argue that social interaction, community and identity (as we know it) are phenomena that are local, situated and embodied, which is characterized by mutual involvement, concern and commitment (Dreyfus 2001; Borgmann
1999, Ihde 2002, Introna 1997, Coyne 1995, Heim 1993). In other words that these phenomena draw on an implied sense of involvement, place, situation, and body for its ongoing meaning.
Borgmann
(1999) argues that the unparalleled opportunity of virtuality suggested by Turkle comes at a cost. To secure the charm of virtual reality at its most glamorous, the veil of virtual ambiguity must be dense and thick. Inevitably, however, such an enclosure excludes the commanding presence of reality. Hence the price of sustaining virtual ambiguity is triviality.Indeed such fluid and multiple identity is only feasible as long as it is “kept barren of real consequences”
Dreyfus
(1999, 2001) argues, in a similar vein that without a situated and embodied engagement there can be no commitment and no risk. They argue that in such an environment moral engagement is limited and human relations become trivialized. Ihde (2002) does not go as far as Borgmann and Dreyfus in discounting the virtual
as ‘trivial'.
Coyne (1995) argues that the proximity of community has nothing to do with physical distance. He argues that proximity is rather a matter of shared concerns—i.e., my family is ‘close’ to me even if they are a thousand miles away and my neighbors may be ‘distant’ to me even if they are next door.
The structure of technological consciousness is relational but also situational, organizational, aspectual and integrative. Technological consciousness situates new understandings by creating a context of time and space. As well, technological consciousness organizes disjointed sequences of experience under an sense of unity that allows for a continuity of experience. The aspectual component of technological consciousness recognizes that individuals can only be conscious of aspects of an experience, not the whole thing. For this reason, technology manifests itself in processes that can be shared with others. The integrative characteristics of technological consciousness are assimilation, substitution and conversation. Assimilation allows for unfamiliar experiences to be integrated with familiar ones. Substitution is a metaphorical process allowing for complex experiences to be codified and shared with others — for example, language. Conversation is the sense of an observer within an individual's consciousness, providing stability and a standpoint from which to interact with the process.
issues.
individually. This is an important consideration as some technologies are created for use by a specific gender and must focus on the individual effects on that gender but still consider the influence on the other gender. Examples include the Birth control
, abortion
, fertility treatments, and Viagra.
Women are continuously joining the technology field, which is improving and broadening the viewpoints and understanding of the effects of technology on society, more specifically the female experience in society.
, rational and ethical decision making models and information ethics
. A major area of interest is the convergence of technologies. As technologies converge and become more interdependent as well as increase the methods of accessing the same information, they transform society and culture in various ways. Information and Communication Technoethics evaluates whether this convergence creates new ethical dilemmas. Furthermore, it seeks to understand and characterize the need for alterations in ethical frameworks of research structures to capture the essence of the new technologies.
and the latest technologies, and with them the diversity of audio, visual, and textual material available through the internet
, compared with those that do not or possess only outdated equipment. This sort of gap can exist both between the developed and third world as well as between educational institutions within the same countries due to issues of budget and differing priorities. It also considers changes in student values and behavior related to technology. These include issues such as accessing inappropriate material in schools or online plagiarism using material copied directly from the internet
or purchasing papers from online resources and passing them off as the student's own work.
in the workplace allowed employees to transmit information electronically not only to others in their own office but those in other countries as well. Technology began to facilitate the rapid exchange of information for these organizations and thus contributed to a structural change in how they operate. These changes prompted researchers to delve deeper into the issues surrounding organizational technoethics in how technology was shaping the workplace, whether positively or negatively, and the ethical issues that may arise.
The use of ICTs within organizations have given way to a new kind of office setting where physically being in the office is not mandatory to get the job done. This recent trend coined by many as the virtual workplace involves several workplaces that are connected through technology and are not hindered by physical restraints. Telecommuting
, the hot desk, and virtual team
s are the three major types of virtual workplaces that have been made possible through the use of technology and have changed the way many organizations communicate and transmit information.
, playing games, doing personal banking online, and using email for non-work related activities.
In response to these popular misuses of technology in the workplace, some organizations have implemented workplace surveillance
technologies and content-control software
to monitor and restrict employees’ activities online.
ICT use in medical organizations has also given rise to new ethical dilemmas, such as the use of electronic medical record
s. These have created privacy concerns relating to potential breaches of doctor-patient confidentiality as well as concerns with information storage.
One technology that has really grown in popularity in recent years is social networking
sites; as many people use sites such as Facebook for personal and professional reasons. Organizations all of over the world, including those in the Canadian province of Ontario have begun to block access to Facebook and have led to a criticism of Facebook
. For example, in May 2007, Ontario government employees, Federal public servants, MPPs and cabinet ministers were blocked from access to Facebook on government computers. Employees trying to access Facebook received a warning message that read "The Internet
website that you have requested has been deemed unacceptable for use for government business purposes" The introduction of social networking sites led to use in government offices. With the use of this technology came a fear that government offices would become more vulnerable to viruses and hackers However, with the government denying the use of these websites in their offices, many ethical questions arise about whether or not denying employees access to something that is readily available to everyone else is an infringement on the employees’ rights and freedoms as Canadian citizens. This is just one case study of technoethics in organizations that also brings up questions in business ethics
as well.
are based on values and judgments in a practical clinical placement where six values are portrayed the most: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, dignity, truthfulness and honesty. Many of the issues in medical ethics are due to a lack of communication between the patients, family members, and healthcare team. An asset to medical ethics that has brought attention to its advantages and disadvantages are electronic medical records (EMRs)
. This is a new way to update, organize and store patients’ medical records in a database that can be accessible to other doctors by using the network.
An issue in organizational technoethics in the medical field that is an increasing matter is the privacy issue with electronic medical records. To start, some advantages of EMR’s are that they can minimize errors, keep records safe in the database, it is cost efficient, translates into a better treatment for the patients and can even give some control over health records to the patients. On the other hand, EMR’s have brought upon some disadvantages mainly around privacy issues. First, it threatens a patient’s privacy. Having a patient’s medical history recorded in the database loses the confidentiality between the doctor and patient since anyone who has access to the system is able to retrieve these files.
Moreover, some do not feel their medical records are safe in the database since others are able to get into personal files and potentially change medical records or misuse the information. A group of researchers conducted a study on the privacy issues raised by the use of EMR’s. They concluded that all electronic systems around us have this one-to-many
exchange such as the internet and email just like the EMR system. However, more clarity needs to be provided around patient consent and patient restrictions as well as confidentiality issues. With the issue of privacy at hand, many ethical questions have surfaced on whether this electronic system is safe or a hazard to patients due to the easy access and misuse of a patient’s information.
is forcing the hand of companies to allow their workers some benefits to access the sites they normally would outside of the office, while at the same time maintaining a strict policy to not abuse any privileges meted out. The medical field has brought on a new technology that hopes to effectively and systematically ease the process of updating, storing, and organizing patient’s records in a manner that suits both the patients and the doctors that treat them.
With the advent of electronic medical records (EMR)
, the field of Medical Ethics
has also seen an influx in ethical discourse. While the technology is different from social media per se, the efforts to protect the worker’s (or patient’s) privacy is similar and equally paramount to their survival. Patients will look to online databases to ensure that their information is both correct and secure, while trying to maintain the pseudo-ageless “doctor-patient confidentiality,” even with full knowledge that their information is accessible worldwide with the click of a button.
Looking ahead to how EMR advances, and whether or not organizations will always feel the need to block social network sites all depends on how they continue to be used as people become more complacent with the technology. There will always be instances of ethical debates concerning technology within an organizational context, as the only things that seem to change are the technologies surrounding them. With the knowledge based society growing constantly, it will be interesting to see how future generations tackle the same ethical concerns that populate our organizational discourse today.
activities. The ethical considerations behind internet
activities such a peer-to-peer file sharing involve every layer of the discussion – the consumer, artist, producer, music/movie/software industry, national government, and international relations. There must also be consideration for the effects that digital laws have had in other countries. (insert some examples). Overall, technoethics forces the “big picture” approach to all discussions on technology in society. Although time consuming, this “big picture” approach offers some level of reassurance when considering that any law put in place could drastically alter the way we interact with our technology and thus the direction of work and innovation in the country.
technologies, new forms of surveillance
and anonymity
, computer networks, Internet advancement, etc.). This recent major collection provides the first comprehensive examination of technoethics and its various branches from over 50 scholars around the globe. The emergence of technoethics can be juxtaposed with a number of other innovative interdisciplinary areas of scholarship which have surfaced in recent years such as technoscience
and technocriticism
.
From the University of Indiana School of journalism, an article about frame-working in the news media surrounding terrorism, and the ethical principles behind such broadcasts.
A case study that looks at the environmental effects of Apple’s technology designs and it’s harmful effects. In particular, the toxin referred to as PVC plastic Polyvinyl Chloride is discussed as it is in most of Apple’s products.
An interesting youtube video discussing the ethical implications of implanting nanotechnology into humans.
Coyne, R., 1995, Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Dreyfus, H.L., 1999, “Anonymity versus commitment: The dangers of education on the internet,” Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, p. 15-20, 1999
Gert, Bernard. 1999, “Common Morality and Computing,” Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, 57-64.
Heidegger, M., 1977, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, New York: Harper Torchbooks.
Ihde, D. 1990, Technology and the Lifeworld: From garden to earth. Bloomington and Indianopolis: Indiana University Press.
Jonas, H. (1979). The imperative of responsibility: In search of ethics for the technological age. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Jonas, H. (1985). On technology, medicine and ethics. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Levinas, E., 1991, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Luppicini, R., (2008). The emerging field of Technoethics. In R. Luppicini and R. Adell (eds.). Handbook of Research on Technoethics (pp. 49–51). Hershey: Idea Group Publishing.
Luppicini, R., (2010). Technoethics and the Evolving Knowledge Society: Ethical Issues in Technological Design, Research, Development and Innovation. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking through technology. University of Chicago Press.
Mitcham , C. (1997). Thinking ethics in technology: Hennebach lectures and papers, 1995-1996. Golden, CO: Colorado School of Mines Press.
Mitcham, C. (2005). Encyclopedia of science, technology, and ethics. Detroit: Macmillan Reference.
Tavani, H. T. (2004). Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Turkle, S. 1996, “Parallel lives: Working on identity in virtual space.” in D. Grodin & T. R. Lindlof, (eds.), Constructing the self in a mediated world, London: Sage, 156-175
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
use of technology, protecting against the misuse of technology, and devising common principles to guide new advances in technological development and application to benefit society. Typically, scholars in technoethics have a tendency to conceptualize technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
and ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
as interconnected and embedded in life and society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
. Technoethics denotes a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology- from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life. Technoethical perspectives are constantly in transition as technology advances in areas unseen by creators, as users change the intended uses of new technologies. Humans cannot be separated from these technologies because it is an inherent part of consciousness and meaning in life therefore, requiring an ethical model. The short term and longer term ethical considerations for technologies do not just engage the creator and producer but makes the user question their beliefs in correspondence with this technology and how governments must allow, react to, change, and/or deny technologies.
Definitions
- Technoethics (TE) has been defined in a variety of ways over the last decade which highlight different aspects of this emerging field. Galvan defined Technoethics as the “sum total of ideas that bring into evidence a system of ethical reference that justifies that profound dimension of technology as a central element in the attainment of a ‘finalized’ perfection of man.” Bao and Xiang described technoethics as the behavioral norm and ethical basis for the global community.”. The Handbook of Research on Technoethics defined technoethics as “an interdisciplinary field concerned with all ethical aspects of technology within a society shaped by technology. It deals with human processes and practices connected to technology which are embedded within social, political, and moral spheres of life”. Technoethics examines current social policies and interventions linked with technological advancement and uses; there are more and more technologies arising, that have no regulations and it is important that there are some sort of guidelines on how to use them ethically. As mentioned previously, since its interdisciplinary in nature of TE, it is easier to come up with these, because all disciplines have united to form one large umbrella of philosophies, thus making it easier to understand and study certain technologies and their uses. Researchers no longer have to track all the disciplines to which the technology might be related to, to think of it ethically. And unlike Applied Ethics, which focuses solely on bio-centric philosophy. Technoethics unites both technocentric and bio-centric philosophies. This gives TE an advantage because it can study both issues simultaneously by giving technology equality in importance, to that of living entities.
- Technoethics and the Evolving Knowledge Society continues to state, "...it attempts to provide conceptual grounding to clarify the role of technology to those affected by it and to help guide ethical problem solving and decision making in areas of activity that rely on technology."
- Ethics: there are many different definitions of ethics depending on the context and conditions of use. However, for the purposes of technoethics, it is appropriate to use the philosophical definition of ethics. This definition states that ethics brings the issues of what is ‘right’, what is ‘just’, and what is ‘fair'. This definition is essential to ethics involving technology because ethics describe moral principles influencing conduct and the study of ethics is rooted in what people do and how they believe they should act in the world. It focuses on values and actions of individuals within society.
- Technology is the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment; drawing upon such subjects as industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science. There are two sub categories that help narrow the scope of technology and help determine what aspects of technology are being discussed. These sub categories are called Teckné and Tecknik:
- Techné is the set of principles, or rational method, involved in the production of an object or the accomplishment of an end, the knowledge of such principles or method. This form of technology was acknowledged during the early Greek and Roman period. Most forms of technology at this time were art and poetry.
- Technik was established in the 19th and 20th centuries. It was created to help engineers describe the totality of processes, tools, machines, and systems employed in the practical arts and engineering.
History of Technoethics
The first traces of Technoethics (TE) can be seen in Dewey and Pearce’s Pragmatism. With the advent of the industrial revolution, it was easy to see that technological advances were going to influence human activity. This is why they put emphasis on the responsible use of technologyTechnology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
. With the spurt in technological advances came technological inquiry. Societal views of technology were changing; people were becoming more critical of the developments that were occurring and scholars were emphasizing the need to understand and to take a deeper look and study the innovations. Associations were uniting scholars from different disciplines to study the various aspects of technology. The main disciplines being philosophy, social sciences and science and technology studies (STS). Though many technologies were already focused on ethics, each technology discipline was separated from each other, despite the potential for the information to intertwine and reinforce itself. As technologies became increasingly developed in each discipline, their ethical implications paralleled their development, and became increasingly complex. Each branch eventually became united, under the term Technoethics, so that all areas of technology could be studied and researched, based on existing, real world examples, and a variety of knowledge, rather than just discipline specific knowledge. This thus enriches the scope of the philosophy, and the ability to study it effectively.
Though the ethical consequences of new technologies have existed since Socrates's attack on writing in Plato's dialogue, Phaedrus, the formal field of Technoethics had only existed for a few decades. Technoethics is a rapidly expanding research area that evolved during the 1970s and 1980s from the confluence
Confluence
Confluence, in geography, describes the meeting of two or more bodies of water.Confluence may also refer to:* Confluence , a property of term rewriting systems...
of a variety of disciplines and disciplinary subfields which viewed Science and Technology as socially embedded enterprises. It developed as a grounding framework for a rapidly emerging body of scholarship dealing with the interconnection of technology and ethics embedded in society. It has roots in Science and Technology Studies
Science and technology studies
Science, technology and society is the study of how social, political, and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture...
(STS), philosophy of technology
Philosophy of technology
The philosophy of technology is a philosophical field dedicated to studying the nature of technology and its social effects.- History :Considered under the rubric of the Greek term techne , the philosophy of technology goes to the very roots of Western philosophy.* In his Republic, Plato sees...
, and various sub-areas of Applied Ethics
Applied ethics
Applied ethics is, in the words of Brenda Almond, co-founder of the Society for Applied Philosophy, "the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment"...
which focus on technology. The term Technoethics was coined in 1977 by the philosopher Mario Bunge
Mario Bunge
Mario Augusto Bunge is an Argentine philosopher and physicist mainly active in Canada.-Biography:Bunge began his studies at the National University of La Plata, graduating with a Ph.D. in physico-mathematical sciences in 1952. He was professor of theoretical physics and philosophy,...
to describe the responsibilities of technologists and scientists to develop ethics as a branch of technology. Bunge argued that the current state of technological progress was guided by ungrounded practices based on limited empirical evidence and trial-and-error learning. He recognized that “the technologist must be held not only technically but also morally responsible for whatever he designs or executes: not only should his artifacts be optimally efficient but, far from being harmful, they should be beneficial, and not only in the short run but also in the long term.” He recognized a pressing need in society to create a new field called ‘Technoethics’ to discover rationally grounded rules for guiding science and technological progress.
Key scholarly contributions linking ethics, technology, and society can be found in a number of seminal works: The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of Ethics for the Technological Age (Jonas, 1979), On Technology, Medicine and Ethics (Jonas, 1985), The Real World of Technology (Franklin, 1990), Thinking Ethics in Technology: Hennebach Lectures and Papers, 1995-1996 (Mitcham, 1997), Technology and the Good Life (Higgs, Light & Strong, 2000), and Readings in the Philosophy of Technology (Kaplin, 2004), and Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology (Tavani, 2004.). This resulting scholarly attention to ethical issues arising from technological transformations of work and life has helped given rise to a number of key areas (or branches) of technoethical inquiry under various research programs (I.e., computer ethics
Computer ethics
Computer Ethics is a branch of practical philosophy which deals with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct....
, engineering ethics
Engineering ethics
Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics and system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession...
, environmental technoethics, biotech ethics, Nanoethics, educational technoethics, information and communication ethics, media ethics
Media ethics
Media ethics is the subdivision of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet...
, and Internet ethics
Internet ethics
In January 1989 the Internet Architecture Board issued a statement of policy concerning Internet ethics. This document is referred to as RFC 1087 'Ethics and the Internet'.An extract of RFC 1087 follows:...
).
Historical framing – 4 main periods:
- Greek civilization defined technology as “techné”. TechnéTechneTechne, or techné, as distinguished from episteme, is etymologically derived from the Greek word τέχνη which is often translated as craftsmanship, craft, or art. It is the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective...
is “the set principles, or rational method, involved in the production of an object or the accomplishment of an end; the knowledge such as principles of method; art. “Second nature” is significant because it connected social development and technological activity in the world with the internal workings of human nature. It placed technology at the center of human meaning and social progress. - Modern conceptualization of technologyTechnologyTechnology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
as invention materialized in the 17th century in Bacon’s futuristic vision of a perfect society governed by engineers and scientists in Saloman’s House, to raise the importance of technology in society - In the 19th-20th century – German term “technik”. Technik is the totality of processes, machines, tools and systems employed in the practical arts and Engineering. Webber popularized it when it was used in broader fields. Mumford said it was underlying a civilization. Know as: before 1750: Eotechnic, in 1750-1890: Paleoethnic and in 1890: Neoethnic. Place it at the center of social life in close connection to social progress and societal change. Mumford says that a machine cannot be divorced from its larger social pattern, for it is the pattern that gives it meaning and purpose.
- Rapid advances in technology provoked a negative reaction from scholars who saw technology as a controlling force in society with the potential to destroy how people live (technological determinism). Heidegger warned people that technology was dangerous in hat it exerted control over people through its mediating effects, thus limiting authenticity of experience in the world that defines life and gives life meaning. It is an intimate part of the human condition, deeply entrenched in all human history, society and mind.
Rationale for Technoethics
- "The rise of technologies in diverse areas of human work and life have created new ethical dilemmas found in niche areas within multiple disciplines and fields".
- Technoethics has a relational orientation to both technology and human activity allowing it to bring together diverse areas of ethical inquiry across all areas of human activity involving technology under a unified framework".
- Technoethics attempts "to clarify the role of technology in relation to those affected by it and to help guide ethical problem-solving and decision making in areas of activity that rely on technology".
Significant Technoethical Developments In Society
Throughout the last few decades, there have been many concrete examples that have illustrated the need to consider ethical dilemmas in relation to technological innovations. The following consists of a short list of examples of technological innovations that had more or less an impact on technoethics.1950s
First satellite Sputnik 1Sputnik 1
Sputnik 1 ) was the first artificial satellite to be put into Earth's orbit. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1s success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the Space...
orbits the earth, DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
double helix structure discovered, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant
Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant
Obninsk Nuclear Power Station, , was built in the "Science City" of Obninsk, about 110 km southwest of Moscow. It was the first civilian nuclear power station in the world...
is the first nuclear power plant to be opened, the American nuclear tests take place
Operation Castle
Operation Castle was a United States series of high-energy nuclear tests by Joint Task Force SEVEN at Bikini Atoll beginning in March 1954...
.
1960s
First manned moon landingMoon landing
A moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both manned and unmanned missions. The first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Union's Luna 2 mission on 13 September 1959. The United States's Apollo 11 was the first manned...
, ARPANET
ARPANET
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network , was the world's first operational packet switching network and the core network of a set that came to compose the global Internet...
created which leads to the later creation of the Internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
, industrial pollution become major issues after Cuyahoga river
Cuyahoga River
The Cuyahoga River is located in Northeast Ohio in the United States. Outside of Ohio, the river is most famous for being "the river that caught fire", helping to spur the environmental movement in the late 1960s...
catches fire and environmental acts are created, birth control pill, first heart transplantation
Heart transplantation
A heart transplant, or a cardiac transplantation, is a surgical transplant procedure performed on patients with end-stage heart failure or severe coronary artery disease. As of 2007 the most common procedure was to take a working heart from a recently deceased organ donor and implant it into the...
completed, Telstar
Telstar
Telstar is the name of various communications satellites, including the first such satellite to relay television signals.The first two Telstar satellites were experimental and nearly identical. Telstar 1 was launched on top of a Thor-Delta rocket on July 10, 1962...
communications satellite is launched, rise of feminism
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
in society and women entering the workforce.
1970s
The energy crisisEnergy crisis
An energy crisis is any great bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy. In popular literature though, it often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place, particularly those that supply national electricity grids or serve as fuel for vehicles...
, further manned and unmanned moon landings, the green revolution
Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s....
is underway along with second wave feminism as women continue to enter the workforce, C (computer language) is created for computer programming, 1970s recession, Supercomputers and the Personal Calculator
Calculator
An electronic calculator is a small, portable, usually inexpensive electronic device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic. Modern calculators are more portable than most computers, though most PDAs are comparable in size to handheld calculators.The first solid-state electronic...
enter the mass market.
1980s
Personal computers enter the home on a large scale, the Bhopal disasterBhopal disaster
The Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India, considered one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India...
, the Chernobyl disaster
Chernobyl disaster
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine , which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities in Moscow...
, the Exxon Valdez oil spill
Exxon Valdez oil spill
The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989, when the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef and spilled of crude oil. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused...
, and video games become part of popular culture.
1990s
Mass use of the internetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
, Napster
Napster
Napster is an online music store and a Best Buy company. It was originally founded as a pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing Internet service that emphasized sharing audio files that were typically digitally encoded music as MP3 format files...
and the rise of online piracy and file sharing
File sharing
File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digitally stored information, such as computer programs, multimedia , documents, or electronic books. It may be implemented through a variety of ways...
, Gulf War oil spill
Gulf War oil spill
The Gulf War oil spill was one of the largest oil spills in history, resulting from the Gulf War in 1991. The apparent strategic goal was to foil a potential landing by US Marines. It also made commandeering oil reserves difficult for US forces....
, Y2K, beginning of email
Email
Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the...
, instant messaging
Instant messaging
Instant Messaging is a form of real-time direct text-based chatting communication in push mode between two or more people using personal computers or other devices, along with shared clients. The user's text is conveyed over a network, such as the Internet...
, pagers, cell phone, MP3 player, CD burner, satellite phone
Satellite phone
A satellite telephone, satellite phone, or satphone is a type of mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites instead of terrestrial cell sites...
, Linux
Linux
Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution. The defining component of any Linux system is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released October 5, 1991 by Linus Torvalds...
, Java
Java (programming language)
Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities...
programming language created, Human Genome Project
Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project is an international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and of identifying and mapping the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional...
begins, Dolly
Dolly the Sheep
Dolly was a female domestic sheep, and the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer. She was cloned by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh in Scotland...
the sheep is the first cloned
Cloning
Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
mammal
Mammal
Mammals are members of a class of air-breathing vertebrate animals characterised by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young...
, Hubble telescope, Genetically Modified food
Genetically modified food
Genetically modified foods are foods derived from genetically modified organisms . Genetically modified organisms have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering techniques...
, and Mars Pathfinder
Mars Pathfinder
Mars Pathfinder was an American spacecraft that landed a base station with roving probe on Mars in 1997. It consisted of a lander, renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station, and a lightweight wheeled robotic rover named Sojourner.Launched on December 4, 1996 by NASA aboard a Delta II booster a...
landing.
2000s
Web 2.0Web 2.0
The term Web 2.0 is associated with web applications that facilitate participatory information sharing, interoperability, user-centered design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web...
, Electronic commerce
Electronic commerce
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, eCommerce or e-comm, refers to the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. However, the term may refer to more than just buying and selling products online...
, Dot-com bubble
Dot-com bubble
The dot-com bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000 during which stock markets in industrialized nations saw their equity value rise rapidly from growth in the more...
, Robotics
Robotics
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots...
, Telerobotics
Telerobotics
Telerobotics is the area of robotics concerned with the control of robots from a distance, chiefly using wireless connections , "tethered" connections, or the Internet...
, Wireless internet, social networking, Text messaging
Text messaging
Text messaging, or texting, refers to the exchange of brief written text messages between fixed-line phone or mobile phone and fixed or portable devices over a network...
, YouTube
YouTube
YouTube is a video-sharing website, created by three former PayPal employees in February 2005, on which users can upload, view and share videos....
, Wikipedia
Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 20 million articles have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site,...
, Cyber bullying, Large Hadron Collider
Large Hadron Collider
The Large Hadron Collider is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. It is expected to address some of the most fundamental questions of physics, advancing the understanding of the deepest laws of nature....
,
Climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
, Global warming
Global warming
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades...
, Mars Exploration Rover
Mars Exploration Rover
NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, exploring the planet Mars...
.
Phenomenology and Technoethics
Phenomenology (Philosophy)-Phenomenology (from Greek: phainómenon "that which appears"; and lógos "study") is a broad philosophical movement emphasizing the study of conscious experience. It was founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund HusserlEdmund Husserl
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a philosopher and mathematician and the founder of the 20th century philosophical school of phenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his day, yet he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic...
, expanded together with a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich
Munich
Munich The city's motto is "" . Before 2006, it was "Weltstadt mit Herz" . Its native name, , is derived from the Old High German Munichen, meaning "by the monks' place". The city's name derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who founded the city; hence the monk depicted on the city's coat...
in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and spread across to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work.
Phenomenological Approach to Technology
James Moor has argued that computers show up policy vacuums that require new thinking and the establishment of new policies. Others have argued that the resources provided by classical ethical theory such as utilitarianismUtilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "happiness", by whatever means necessary. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome, and that one can...
, consequentialism
Consequentialism
Consequentialism is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness of that conduct...
and deontological ethics is more than enough to deal with all the ethical issues emerging from our design and use of information technology.
For the phenomenologist the ‘impact view’ of technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
as well as the constructivist view of the technology/society relationships is valid but not adequate (Heidegger 1977, Borgmann 1985, Winograd and Flores 1987, Ihde 1990, Dreyfus 1992, 2001). They argue that these accounts of technology, and the technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
/society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
relationship, posit technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
and society as if speaking about the one does not immediately and already draw upon the other for its ongoing sense or meaning. For the phenomenologist society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
and technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
co-constitute each other; they are each other's ongoing condition or possibility for being what they are. For them technology is not just the artifact. Rather, the artifact already emerges from a prior ‘technological’ attitude towards the world (Heidegger 1977).
Heidegger’s Approach (Pre-Technological Age)
For Heidegger the essence of technology is the way of being of modern humans—a way of conducting themselves towards the world—that sees the world as something to be ordered and shaped in line with projects, intentions and desires—a ‘will to power’ that manifest itself as a ‘will to technology'.Heidegger claims that there were other times in human history, a pre-modern time, where humans did not orient themselves towards the world in a technological way—simply as resources for our purposes.
However, according to Heidegger this ‘pre-technological’ age (or mood) is one where humans’ relation with the world and artifacts, their way of being disposed, was poetic and aesthetic rather than technological (enframing).
There are many who disagree with Heidegger's account of the modern technological attitude as the ‘enframing’ of the world. For example Andrew Feenberg
Andrew Feenberg
Andrew Feenberg holds the Canada Research Chair in the Philosophy of Technology in the School of Communication at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver. His main interests are philosophy of technology, continental philosophy, critique of technology and science and technology studies...
argues that Heidegger's account of modern technology is not borne out in contemporary everyday encounters with technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
Hubert Dreyfus Approach (Contemporary Society)
In critiquing the artificial intelligence (AI) programme Hubert DreyfusHubert Dreyfus
Hubert Lederer Dreyfus is an American philosopher. He is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley....
(1992) argues that the way skill development has become understood in the past has been wrong. He argues, this is the model that the early artificial intelligence community uncritically adopted. In opposition to this view he argues, with Heidegger, that what we observe when we learn a new skill in everyday practice is in fact the opposite. We most often start with explicit rules or preformulated approaches and then move to a multiplicity of particular cases, as we become an expert. His argument draws directly on Heidegger's account in Being and Time of humans as beings that are always already situated in-the-world. As humans ‘in-the-world’ we are already experts at going about everyday life, at dealing with the subtleties of every particular situation—that is why everyday life seems so obvious. Thus, the intricate expertise of everyday activity is forgotten and taken for granted by AI as an assumed starting point.
What Dreyfus highlighted in his critique of AI was the fact that technology (AI algorithms) does not make sense by itself. It is the assumed, and forgotten, horizon of everyday practice that make technological devices and solutions show up as meaningful. If we are to understand technology we need to ‘return’ to the horizon of meaning that made it show up as the artifacts we need, want and desire. We also need to consider how these technologies reveal (or disclose) us.
Phenomenology, Ethics and the Virtual World
There seems to be at least one information technologyInformation technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
theme that has attracted some sustained attention from phenomenologists (especially with regard to its ethical implications)—the phenomenon of virtualization
Virtualization
Virtualization, in computing, is the creation of a virtual version of something, such as a hardware platform, operating system, a storage device or network resources....
or virtuality.
The term ‘virtuality’ is used here to refer to the mediation of interaction through an electronic medium between humans and humans as well as between humans and machines. The World Wide Web
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet...
(or Cyberspace as it is known in cultural discourse) is the most evident example of the virtualization
Virtualization
Virtualization, in computing, is the creation of a virtual version of something, such as a hardware platform, operating system, a storage device or network resources....
of interaction
The proponents of the virtualization
Virtualization
Virtualization, in computing, is the creation of a virtual version of something, such as a hardware platform, operating system, a storage device or network resources....
of society (and its institutions) argue that virtuality extends the social in unprecedented ways (Fernback 1997, Rheingold 1993a, 1993b, Turkle 1995, 1996, Benedikt 1991, Horn 1998). They argue that it opens up an entirely new domain of social being. For example Rheingold (1993a) argues that it offers “tools for facilitating all the various ways people have discovered to divide and communicate, group and subgroup and regroup, include and exclude, select and elect.
Turkle suggests that cyberspace makes possible the construction of an identity that is so fluid and multiple that it strains the very limits of the notion [of authenticity]. People become masters of self-presentation and self-creation. There is an unparalleled opportunity to play with one's identity and to ‘try out’ new ones. The very notion of an inner, ‘true self’ is called into question. An individual can literally decide to be who they wish to be. For example, the obese can be slender, the beautiful can be plain and the ‘nerdy’ can be elegant.
The claims by Rheingold, Turkle and others are certainly bold. If they are right then virtuality may indeed represent entirely new possibilities for humans to relate, extend, and express themselves, which should be encouraged, especially for those that have become excluded from the traditional domains of social relations, due to disability.
Phenomenologists would suggest that these responses are all important but they assume something more primary—i.e., the conditions that render such acts as the presentation of the self, ongoing communication and sharing meaningful and significant in the first instance. They might suggest that these social acts are all grounded in an already presumed sense of community. They might further argue that social interaction, community and identity (as we know it) are phenomena that are local, situated and embodied, which is characterized by mutual involvement, concern and commitment (Dreyfus 2001; Borgmann
Borgmann
Borgmann is a surname of German origin. Some of the people by the name are:*Albert Borgmann, philosopher*Bennie Borgmann, American basketball player*Dmitri Borgmann, author*Heinrich Borgmann, German military officer during World War II...
1999, Ihde 2002, Introna 1997, Coyne 1995, Heim 1993). In other words that these phenomena draw on an implied sense of involvement, place, situation, and body for its ongoing meaning.
Borgmann
Borgmann
Borgmann is a surname of German origin. Some of the people by the name are:*Albert Borgmann, philosopher*Bennie Borgmann, American basketball player*Dmitri Borgmann, author*Heinrich Borgmann, German military officer during World War II...
(1999) argues that the unparalleled opportunity of virtuality suggested by Turkle comes at a cost. To secure the charm of virtual reality at its most glamorous, the veil of virtual ambiguity must be dense and thick. Inevitably, however, such an enclosure excludes the commanding presence of reality. Hence the price of sustaining virtual ambiguity is triviality.Indeed such fluid and multiple identity is only feasible as long as it is “kept barren of real consequences”
Dreyfus
Dreyfus
Dreyfus may refer to:* The Dreyfus affair, a French political scandal* Dreyfus, a 1930 German film on the Dreyfus affair* Louis Dreyfus Group, a company* Dreyfus Corporation, a Mellon Financial Corporation subsidiary...
(1999, 2001) argues, in a similar vein that without a situated and embodied engagement there can be no commitment and no risk. They argue that in such an environment moral engagement is limited and human relations become trivialized. Ihde (2002) does not go as far as Borgmann and Dreyfus in discounting the virtual
Virtual
The term virtual is a concept applied in many fields with somewhat differing connotations, and also, differing denotations.The term has been defined in philosophy as "that which is not real" but may display the salient qualities of the real....
as ‘trivial'.
Coyne (1995) argues that the proximity of community has nothing to do with physical distance. He argues that proximity is rather a matter of shared concerns—i.e., my family is ‘close’ to me even if they are a thousand miles away and my neighbors may be ‘distant’ to me even if they are next door.
Technological Consciousness
Technological consciousness is a term that describes the relationship between humans and technology. Technology is seen as an integral component of human consciousness and development. Technology, consciousness and society are intertwined in a relational process of creation that is key to human evolution. Technology is rooted in the human mind, and is made manifest in the world in the form of new understandings and artifacts. The process of technological consciousness frames the inquiry into ethical responsibility concerning technology by grounding technology in human life.The structure of technological consciousness is relational but also situational, organizational, aspectual and integrative. Technological consciousness situates new understandings by creating a context of time and space. As well, technological consciousness organizes disjointed sequences of experience under an sense of unity that allows for a continuity of experience. The aspectual component of technological consciousness recognizes that individuals can only be conscious of aspects of an experience, not the whole thing. For this reason, technology manifests itself in processes that can be shared with others. The integrative characteristics of technological consciousness are assimilation, substitution and conversation. Assimilation allows for unfamiliar experiences to be integrated with familiar ones. Substitution is a metaphorical process allowing for complex experiences to be codified and shared with others — for example, language. Conversation is the sense of an observer within an individual's consciousness, providing stability and a standpoint from which to interact with the process.
Ethical challenges
Limitations of human knowledge processes, workplace discrimination, strained work and life balance in technologically enhanced work environments, inequalities in information access for parts of the population, unequal opportunities for scientific and technological development, organizational responsibility and accountability issues, reputation and trust building challenges, intellectual propertyIntellectual property
Intellectual property is a term referring to a number of distinct types of creations of the mind for which a set of exclusive rights are recognized—and the corresponding fields of law...
issues.
- Information Processing Theory is working memory that has a limited capacity and too much information can lead to cognitive overload resulting in loss of information from short term memory.
- Limit an organization’s ability to innovate and respond for change.
- Knowledge society is intertwined with changing technology requiring new skills of its workforce. Cutler says that there is the perception that older workers lack experience with new technology and that retaining programs may be less effective and more expensive for older workers. Cascio says that there is a growth of virtual organizations. Saetre & Sornes say that it is a blurring of the traditional time and space boundaries has also led to many cases in the blurring of work and personal life.
- Norris says access to information and knowledge resources within a knowledge society tend to favour the economically privileged who have greater access to technological tools needed to access information and knowledge resources disseminated online and the privatization of knowledge.
- Inequality in terms of how scientific and technological knowledge is developed around the globe. Developing countries do not have the same opportunities as developed countries to invest in costly large-scale research and expensive research facilities and instrumentation.
- Negative impacts of many scientific and technological innovations have on humans and the environment has led to some skepticism and resistance to increasing dependence on technology within the Knowledge Society. Doucet calls for city empowerment to have the courage and foresight to make decisions that are acceptable its habitants rather that succumb to global consumer capitalismCapitalismCapitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
and the forces of international corporations on national and local governments. - Scientific and technological innovations that have transformed organizational life within a global economy have also supplanted human autonomy and control in work within a technologically oriented workplace.
- Rapidly changing landscape of organizational life and recent history of unethical business practices have given rise to public debates concerning organizational responsibility and trust. The advent of virtual organizations and telework has bolstered ethical problems by providing more opportunities for fraudulent behaviour and the production of misinformation. Concerted efforts are required to uphold ethical values in advancing new knowledge and tools within societal relations which do not exclude people or limit liberties of some people at the expense of others.
Emergence of Technology Through an Ethical Lens
Technoethics is an emergence from a consolidation of technology and ethics that has spread from specialty areas within philosophy and other areas. It involves the ethical aspects of technology within a society that is shaped by technology. Ethics describes moral principles influencing conduct and behaviour. The study of ethics is rooted in what people do and how they believe they should behave in the real world. In turn, ethics focus on the values and actions within a society. This brings up a series of social and ethical questions regarding new technological advancements and new boundary crossing opportunities. Before moving forward and attempting to address any ethical questions and concerns, it is important to review some of the major ethical theories to develop a perspective foundation.- Utilitarians have the assumption of the greatest happiness principle. This means that they align the good with that which brings the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people. They focus on the outcome of actions as opposed to the intentions.
- Duty Ethics note the obligations that one has to society and follow the universal rules. These people focus on the rightness of actions instead of the consequences, focusing on what individual should do.
- Rights perspective focus on an approach that feels that their obligations are based on the assumptions owned by the individual from the collective group in which they belong. The concept of social contracts are used to ensure that individual rights are upheld in society.
- Virtuous perspective would lead one to feel that human character and efforts lead to the good life. All people are born with certain virtues that need to be developed. People's behaviours and habits can benefit society as a whole.
- Relationship Ethics consider that care and consideration are both derived from human communication. Ethical communication is the core of healthy relationships.
Technofeminism
Technoethics has concerned itself with society as a general group and made no distinctions between the genders, but must consider technological effects and influences on each genderGender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
individually. This is an important consideration as some technologies are created for use by a specific gender and must focus on the individual effects on that gender but still consider the influence on the other gender. Examples include the Birth control
Birth control
Birth control is an umbrella term for several techniques and methods used to prevent fertilization or to interrupt pregnancy at various stages. Birth control techniques and methods include contraception , contragestion and abortion...
, abortion
Abortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
, fertility treatments, and Viagra.
Women are continuously joining the technology field, which is improving and broadening the viewpoints and understanding of the effects of technology on society, more specifically the female experience in society.
Information and Communication Technoethics
Information and Communication Technoethics is “concerned with ethical issues and responsibilities arising when dealing with information and communication technology in the realm of communication”. This involves the consideration of both the changing relationships between humans and technology and the ethics connected with the development and aims of ICTs. Information and Communication Technoethics is related to internet ethicsInternet ethics
In January 1989 the Internet Architecture Board issued a statement of policy concerning Internet ethics. This document is referred to as RFC 1087 'Ethics and the Internet'.An extract of RFC 1087 follows:...
, rational and ethical decision making models and information ethics
Information ethics
Information ethics has been defined as "the branch of ethics that focuses on the relationship between the creation, organization, dissemination, and use of information, and the ethical standards and moral codes governing human conduct in society". It provides a critical framework for considering...
. A major area of interest is the convergence of technologies. As technologies converge and become more interdependent as well as increase the methods of accessing the same information, they transform society and culture in various ways. Information and Communication Technoethics evaluates whether this convergence creates new ethical dilemmas. Furthermore, it seeks to understand and characterize the need for alterations in ethical frameworks of research structures to capture the essence of the new technologies.
Educational Technoethics
Technoethical inquiry in the field of education examines how technology impacts the roles and values of education in society. An example of this is the divide created in education between institutions which have access to the internetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
and the latest technologies, and with them the diversity of audio, visual, and textual material available through the internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
, compared with those that do not or possess only outdated equipment. This sort of gap can exist both between the developed and third world as well as between educational institutions within the same countries due to issues of budget and differing priorities. It also considers changes in student values and behavior related to technology. These include issues such as accessing inappropriate material in schools or online plagiarism using material copied directly from the internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
or purchasing papers from online resources and passing them off as the student's own work.
Environmental and Engineering Technoethics
Environmental and engineering technoethics is a fairly new brand that is emerging in the field of technoethics. Major changes took place in North America with the industrial revolution around the 18th and 19th century; which gave rise to a demand for expertise, specifically the engineer expertise. A need for a code of professional ethics came about out of necessity to improve engineering standards with all the societies that had been created. As engineering began to branch out in the 1980s and 1990s, ethics related to it also spread. Environmental technoethics originate from the 1960s and 70s' interest in environment and nature. A few examples of areas of concern are: transport, mining, sanitation. Because it is a fairly new area of discipline within technoethics, it focuses on the human use of technologies that may impact the environment.Organizational and Professional Technoethics
Focuses on the issue of ethical responsibility for those who work with technology within a professional setting. It is more focused on people in positions who use new technology as a part of their job, for example, engineers, people in the medical profession, etc. According to the Handbook of Research on Technoethics, "Professional technoethics can be understood as identifying and analyzing issues of ethical responsibility for professionals working with technology.Organizational Technoethics
Recent advances in technology and their ability to transmit vast amounts of information in a short amount of time has changed the way information is being shared amongst co-workers and managers throughout organizations across the globe. Starting in the 1980s with information and communications technologies (ICTs), organizations have seen an increase in the amount of technology that they rely on to communicate within and outside of the workplace. However, these implementations of technology in the workplace create various ethical concerns and in turn a need for further analysis of technology in organizations. As a result of this growing trend, a subsection of technoethics known as organizational technoethics has emerged to address these issues.Changes to organizational structure
Organizational technoethics “focuses on how technological advances are redefining organizations and how they operate within an evolving knowledge economy”. This new focus on knowledge and information within organizations has changed the way they function on a daily basis and has made it apparent that “as knowledge-intensive work gradually becomes the cornerstone of this economy, understanding its control practices is consequential to organizational effectiveness, worker satisfaction and ethical conditions of organizational governance." With this “knowledge intensive work” at the forefront of most organizations, the efficient transmission of this knowledge and information now becomes a major priority to be carried out in the workplace. The introduction of the InternetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
in the workplace allowed employees to transmit information electronically not only to others in their own office but those in other countries as well. Technology began to facilitate the rapid exchange of information for these organizations and thus contributed to a structural change in how they operate. These changes prompted researchers to delve deeper into the issues surrounding organizational technoethics in how technology was shaping the workplace, whether positively or negatively, and the ethical issues that may arise.
The use of ICTs within organizations have given way to a new kind of office setting where physically being in the office is not mandatory to get the job done. This recent trend coined by many as the virtual workplace involves several workplaces that are connected through technology and are not hindered by physical restraints. Telecommuting
Telecommuting
Telecommuting or telework is a work arrangement in which employees enjoy flexibility in working location and hours. In other words, the daily commute to a central place of work is replaced by telecommunication links...
, the hot desk, and virtual team
Virtual team
A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time, space and organizational boundaries with links strengthened by webs of communication technology...
s are the three major types of virtual workplaces that have been made possible through the use of technology and have changed the way many organizations communicate and transmit information.
New ethical challenges
The increasing use of ICTs in the workplace has presented organizations with new ethical challenges. It has been argued that ICT use in organizational settings can contribute to counterproductive behaviour and deviancy as the line between personal and professional lives becomes blurred Usually this behaviour consists of non-sanctioned use of ICTs during work hours, such as updating personal blogsBlog
A blog is a type of website or part of a website supposed to be updated with new content from time to time. Blogs are usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in...
, playing games, doing personal banking online, and using email for non-work related activities.
In response to these popular misuses of technology in the workplace, some organizations have implemented workplace surveillance
Workplace surveillance
Businesses use workplace surveillance as a way of monitoring the activities of their employees. Today's businesses often use information technology in their operations and communications. Business leaders have concerns related to employee misuse of available technologies. Technology appropriate use...
technologies and content-control software
Content-control software
Content-control software, also known as censorware or web filtering software, is a term for software designed and optimized for controlling what content is permitted to a reader, especially when it is used to restrict material delivered over the Web...
to monitor and restrict employees’ activities online.
ICT use in medical organizations has also given rise to new ethical dilemmas, such as the use of electronic medical record
Electronic medical record
An electronic medical record is a computerized medical record created in an organization that delivers care, such as a hospital or physician's office...
s. These have created privacy concerns relating to potential breaches of doctor-patient confidentiality as well as concerns with information storage.
1. Organizational restrictions on social networking
One area of technoethics that is growing increasingly popular is organizational ethics and technology. The introduction of technology into organizations has fuelled many different questions. Among these many questions is whether or not the technology being used is ethical. Many different case studies have been conducted in organizations around the world. In these case studies, new technology that has been introduced to an organization is examined. During the examination, one ethical question that seems to be a main focus for researchers is whether or not the new technology maintains user’s privacy.One technology that has really grown in popularity in recent years is social networking
Social network service
A social networking service is an online service, platform, or site that focuses on building and reflecting of social networks or social relations among people, who, for example, share interests and/or activities. A social network service consists of a representation of each user , his/her social...
sites; as many people use sites such as Facebook for personal and professional reasons. Organizations all of over the world, including those in the Canadian province of Ontario have begun to block access to Facebook and have led to a criticism of Facebook
Criticism of Facebook
Facebook's growth as an Internet social networking site has met criticism on a range of issues, including online privacy, child safety, and the inability to terminate accounts without first manually deleting the content. In 2008, many companies removed their advertising from the site because it was...
. For example, in May 2007, Ontario government employees, Federal public servants, MPPs and cabinet ministers were blocked from access to Facebook on government computers. Employees trying to access Facebook received a warning message that read "The Internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
website that you have requested has been deemed unacceptable for use for government business purposes" The introduction of social networking sites led to use in government offices. With the use of this technology came a fear that government offices would become more vulnerable to viruses and hackers However, with the government denying the use of these websites in their offices, many ethical questions arise about whether or not denying employees access to something that is readily available to everyone else is an infringement on the employees’ rights and freedoms as Canadian citizens. This is just one case study of technoethics in organizations that also brings up questions in business ethics
Business ethics
Business ethics is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.Business...
as well.
2. Technoethical challenges in medical organizations
Another area of organizational technoethics that has been becoming increasingly popular is in the field of medicine. Medical ethicsMedical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
are based on values and judgments in a practical clinical placement where six values are portrayed the most: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, dignity, truthfulness and honesty. Many of the issues in medical ethics are due to a lack of communication between the patients, family members, and healthcare team. An asset to medical ethics that has brought attention to its advantages and disadvantages are electronic medical records (EMRs)
Electronic medical record
An electronic medical record is a computerized medical record created in an organization that delivers care, such as a hospital or physician's office...
. This is a new way to update, organize and store patients’ medical records in a database that can be accessible to other doctors by using the network.
An issue in organizational technoethics in the medical field that is an increasing matter is the privacy issue with electronic medical records. To start, some advantages of EMR’s are that they can minimize errors, keep records safe in the database, it is cost efficient, translates into a better treatment for the patients and can even give some control over health records to the patients. On the other hand, EMR’s have brought upon some disadvantages mainly around privacy issues. First, it threatens a patient’s privacy. Having a patient’s medical history recorded in the database loses the confidentiality between the doctor and patient since anyone who has access to the system is able to retrieve these files.
Moreover, some do not feel their medical records are safe in the database since others are able to get into personal files and potentially change medical records or misuse the information. A group of researchers conducted a study on the privacy issues raised by the use of EMR’s. They concluded that all electronic systems around us have this one-to-many
Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint communication is a term that is used in the telecommunications field which refers to communication which is accomplished via a specific and distinct type of one-to-many connection, providing multiple paths from a single location to multiple locations.Point-to-multipoint is often...
exchange such as the internet and email just like the EMR system. However, more clarity needs to be provided around patient consent and patient restrictions as well as confidentiality issues. With the issue of privacy at hand, many ethical questions have surfaced on whether this electronic system is safe or a hazard to patients due to the easy access and misuse of a patient’s information.
Future of Organizational Technoethics
Organizational ethics and technology is a hot-bed for discussion. Whether it is about the maintenance of worker’s privacy or the censoring of social network sites, organizations are striving to find a way to balance both their worker’s agency and their productivity. It seems the fluid nature of the InternetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
is forcing the hand of companies to allow their workers some benefits to access the sites they normally would outside of the office, while at the same time maintaining a strict policy to not abuse any privileges meted out. The medical field has brought on a new technology that hopes to effectively and systematically ease the process of updating, storing, and organizing patient’s records in a manner that suits both the patients and the doctors that treat them.
With the advent of electronic medical records (EMR)
Electronic medical record
An electronic medical record is a computerized medical record created in an organization that delivers care, such as a hospital or physician's office...
, the field of Medical Ethics
Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
has also seen an influx in ethical discourse. While the technology is different from social media per se, the efforts to protect the worker’s (or patient’s) privacy is similar and equally paramount to their survival. Patients will look to online databases to ensure that their information is both correct and secure, while trying to maintain the pseudo-ageless “doctor-patient confidentiality,” even with full knowledge that their information is accessible worldwide with the click of a button.
Looking ahead to how EMR advances, and whether or not organizations will always feel the need to block social network sites all depends on how they continue to be used as people become more complacent with the technology. There will always be instances of ethical debates concerning technology within an organizational context, as the only things that seem to change are the technologies surrounding them. With the knowledge based society growing constantly, it will be interesting to see how future generations tackle the same ethical concerns that populate our organizational discourse today.
Current Issues
Digital copyrights are a heated issue because there are so many sides to the discussion. There are ethical considerations surrounding the artist, producer, end user, and the country are intertwined. Not to mention the relationships with other countries and the impact on the use (or no use) of content housed in their countries. In Canada, national laws such as the Copyright Act and the history behind Bill C-32 are just the beginning of the Government’s attempt to shape the “wild west” of Canadian internetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
activities. The ethical considerations behind internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
activities such a peer-to-peer file sharing involve every layer of the discussion – the consumer, artist, producer, music/movie/software industry, national government, and international relations. There must also be consideration for the effects that digital laws have had in other countries. (insert some examples). Overall, technoethics forces the “big picture” approach to all discussions on technology in society. Although time consuming, this “big picture” approach offers some level of reassurance when considering that any law put in place could drastically alter the way we interact with our technology and thus the direction of work and innovation in the country.
Recent developments
Despite the amassing body of scholarly work related to technoethics beginning in the 1970s, only recently has it become institutionalized and recognized as an important interdisciplinary research area and field of study. In 1998, the Epson Foundation founded the Instituto de Tecnoética in Spain under the direction of Josep Esquirol. This institute has actively promoted technoethical scholarship through awards, conferences, and publications. This helped encourage scholarly work for a largely European audience. The major driver for the emergence of technoethics can be attributed to the publication of major reference works available in English and circulated gloabally. The "Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics included a section on Technoethics which helped bring it into mainstream philosophy. This helped to raise further interest leading to the publication of the first reference volume in the English language dedicated to the emerging field of Technoethics. The two volume Handbook of Research on Technoethics explores the complex connections between ethics and the rise of new technologies (e..g., life-preserving technologies, stem cell research, cloningCloning
Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
technologies, new forms of surveillance
Surveillance
Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other changing information, usually of people. It is sometimes done in a surreptitious manner...
and anonymity
Anonymity
Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymity typically refers to the state of an individual's personal identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown.There are many reasons why a...
, computer networks, Internet advancement, etc.). This recent major collection provides the first comprehensive examination of technoethics and its various branches from over 50 scholars around the globe. The emergence of technoethics can be juxtaposed with a number of other innovative interdisciplinary areas of scholarship which have surfaced in recent years such as technoscience
Technoscience
Technoscience is a concept widely used in the interdisciplinary community of science and technology studies to designate the technological and social context of science...
and technocriticism
Technocriticism
Technocriticism is a branch of critical theory devoted to the study of technological change.Technocriticism treats technological transformation as historically specific changes in personal and social practices of research, invention, regulation, distribution, promotion, appropriation, use, and...
.
Future Developments
The future of Technoethics is a promising, yet evolving field. The studies of e-technology in workplace environments are an evolving trend in Technoethics. With the constant evolution of technology, and innovations coming out daily, technoethics is looking to be a rather promising guiding framework for the ethical assessments of new technologies. Some of the questions regarding technoethics and the workplace environment that have yet to be examined and treated are listed below:- Are organizational counter measures not necessary because it invades employee privacy?
- Are surveillance cameras and computer monitoring devices invasive methods that can have ethical repercussions?
- Should organizations have the right and power to impose consequences?
See also
- Applied EthicsApplied ethicsApplied ethics is, in the words of Brenda Almond, co-founder of the Society for Applied Philosophy, "the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment"...
- BioethicsBioethicsBioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy....
- Computer EthicsComputer ethicsComputer Ethics is a branch of practical philosophy which deals with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct....
- CyberethicsCyberEthicsCyberethics is the study of ethics pertaining to computer networks, encompassing user behavior and what networked computers are programmed to do, and how this affects individuals and society...
- Digital RightsDigital rightsThe term digital rights describes the permissions of individuals legitimately to perform actions involving the use of a computer, any electronic device, or a communications network...
- E-DemocracyE-democracyE-democracy refers to the use of information technologies and communication technologies and strategies in political and governance processes...
- Engineering ethicsEngineering ethicsEngineering ethics is the field of applied ethics and system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession...
- Ethics of technologyEthics of technologyEthics in technology is a subfield of ethics addressing the ethical questions specific to the Technology Age. Some prominent works of philosopher Hans Jonas are devoted to ethics of technology. It is often held that technology itself is incapable of possessing moral or ethical qualities, since...
- Information ethicsInformation ethicsInformation ethics has been defined as "the branch of ethics that focuses on the relationship between the creation, organization, dissemination, and use of information, and the ethical standards and moral codes governing human conduct in society". It provides a critical framework for considering...
- Information Privacy
- Information societyInformation societyThe aim of the information society is to gain competitive advantage internationally through using IT in a creative and productive way. An information society is a society in which the creation, distribution, diffusion, use, integration and manipulation of information is a significant economic,...
- Information technologyInformation technologyInformation technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
- Legal EthicsLegal ethicsLegal ethics encompasses an ethical code governing the conduct of persons engaged in the practice of law and persons more generally in the legal sector.-In the United States:...
- Media ethicsMedia ethicsMedia ethics is the subdivision of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet...
- Philosophy of technologyPhilosophy of technologyThe philosophy of technology is a philosophical field dedicated to studying the nature of technology and its social effects.- History :Considered under the rubric of the Greek term techne , the philosophy of technology goes to the very roots of Western philosophy.* In his Republic, Plato sees...
- Technology and societyTechnology and societyTechnology and society or technology and culture refers to cyclical co-dependence, co-influence, co-production of technology and society upon the other . This synergistic relationship occurred from the dawn of humankind, with the invention of simple tools and continues into modern technologies such...
- TechnocriticismTechnocriticismTechnocriticism is a branch of critical theory devoted to the study of technological change.Technocriticism treats technological transformation as historically specific changes in personal and social practices of research, invention, regulation, distribution, promotion, appropriation, use, and...
- Women and technologyWomen, girls and information technologyWomen have been involved in computers since computers were first envisioned. They are present in all facets of computing and information technology. Despite this, their presence is comparatively small in these fields; see statistics below....
Journals
- International Journal of Technoethics
- Journal of Technology, Knowledge, and Society
- Journal of Social Work Ethics and Values
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy
Organizations
- European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies
- Ethics and Emerging Sciences Group
- W. Maurice Centre for Applied Ethics
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO
Case Studies & Scholarly Articles
- On Media Ethics:
From the University of Indiana School of journalism, an article about frame-working in the news media surrounding terrorism, and the ethical principles behind such broadcasts.
- http://journalism.indiana.edu/uncategorized/ethics-frames-terrorism/
- Iposion & Iwaste:
A case study that looks at the environmental effects of Apple’s technology designs and it’s harmful effects. In particular, the toxin referred to as PVC plastic Polyvinyl Chloride is discussed as it is in most of Apple’s products.
- http://www.greenmyapple.org/itox.html
- Nanotechnology:
An interesting youtube video discussing the ethical implications of implanting nanotechnology into humans.
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jExkLS_onuY
Useful Videos
- An ABC episode ( parts 1, 2, 3) on youtube about the legal and ethical issues on the social media platforms such as twitter & facebook, and the prevalent associated problems with a child's usage of them. Ex- bullying
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLU3rdESvas&feature=related
- At this May 24 Future Tense event—sponsored jointly by Arizona State University, New America Foundation, and Slate magazine—a wide range of experts from the military, private sector and academia explored how these technologies will inevitably migrate to consumer markets and the broader culture, and what their impact will be.
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HT8PMQm2Iv8
Other
- The Technoethics Trap. Inc. Magazine
- About Cyberethics
- Virtue Ethics
- Ethical Dilemmas in Information Technology: A Scenario Collection
- The Technological Citizen
- Bill C-32
- Canada’s Bill C-32: Copyright that can stifle creativity
Further reading
Borgmann, A. (1984). Technology and the character of contemporary life: A philosophical inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Coyne, R., 1995, Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Dreyfus, H.L., 1999, “Anonymity versus commitment: The dangers of education on the internet,” Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, p. 15-20, 1999
Gert, Bernard. 1999, “Common Morality and Computing,” Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, 57-64.
Heidegger, M., 1977, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, New York: Harper Torchbooks.
Ihde, D. 1990, Technology and the Lifeworld: From garden to earth. Bloomington and Indianopolis: Indiana University Press.
Jonas, H. (1979). The imperative of responsibility: In search of ethics for the technological age. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Jonas, H. (1985). On technology, medicine and ethics. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Levinas, E., 1991, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Luppicini, R., (2008). The emerging field of Technoethics. In R. Luppicini and R. Adell (eds.). Handbook of Research on Technoethics (pp. 49–51). Hershey: Idea Group Publishing.
Luppicini, R., (2010). Technoethics and the Evolving Knowledge Society: Ethical Issues in Technological Design, Research, Development and Innovation. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking through technology. University of Chicago Press.
Mitcham , C. (1997). Thinking ethics in technology: Hennebach lectures and papers, 1995-1996. Golden, CO: Colorado School of Mines Press.
Mitcham, C. (2005). Encyclopedia of science, technology, and ethics. Detroit: Macmillan Reference.
Tavani, H. T. (2004). Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Turkle, S. 1996, “Parallel lives: Working on identity in virtual space.” in D. Grodin & T. R. Lindlof, (eds.), Constructing the self in a mediated world, London: Sage, 156-175