Tehuantepec
Encyclopedia
Tehuantepec is a city and municipality
in the southeast of the Mexican
state
of Oaxaca
. It is part of the Tehuantepec District
in the west of the Istmo Region
. The area was important in pre Hispanic period as part of a trade route that connected Central America
with what is now the center of Mexico. Later it became a secondary capital of the Zapotec dominion
, before it was conquered by the Spanish in the early 16th century.
The city is still the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and is the second largest in the region. The city is known for its women and their traditional dress, which was adopted by Frida Kahlo
. Tehuantepec has a reputation for being a “matriarchal society.” Women do dominate the local markets and are known to taunt men. However, political power is still the domain of men. The city experienced a short economic boom in the early 20th century related to a rail line that was built linking the two oceans, but it was soon eclipsed by the Panama Canal
. There have been plans to resurrect the line linking the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean but financing has been a problem.
, in the south of Mexico. Founded by the Zapotecs
in the period just before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, Tehuantepec remains the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus. One important symbol of this culture is the image of a Zapotec woman from the area called La Tehuana. In the 2000s, a sculpture of this figure was created by Miguel Hernández Urbán from the State of Mexico. The sculpture is found at the main entrance to the city of Tehuantepec, made of local marble and fine wood along with stainless steel brought from Mexico City
. The work made Hernández an "adopted son" of the city. The city remains home to many traditions and customs which are centuries old, with many, especially in the market, still favoring the Zapotec language over Spanish. The city reached its height in the early 20th century with the arrival of the railroad. However, since then the importance of this railroad has severely diminished by the building of the Panama Canal
. Today the city is considered to be poor, with many of its buildings in disrepair. Many survive on subsistence commerce. Many motorcycle taxi operators in Tehuantepec and other cities in Oaxaca are underage, between 13 and 15. The city also has had problems with stray dogs including an incident when about twenty dogs took over the main entrance.
Tehuantepec and nearby Juchitán
have had a fierce rivalry which dates back to the 19th century. In 1862, Napoleon III sent French troops to collect on debts Mexico owed
. These French allied themselves with Mexican conservatives who allowed them to occupy the Isthmus area. Both Juchitán and Tehuantepec resisted the occupation until a captain in Tehuantepec switched sides. When the Juchitecos learned of this, they attacked Tehuantepec but were defeated. Four year later, this same captain attacked Juchitán but was defeated as well. After the French left in 1862, Juchitán attacked Tehuantepec again for revenge. Although there has been no bloodshed since them, the bad blood and rivalry has remained to this day. Each has tried to outdo the other in festivals in both number and size. The two communities demean each other in looks, hairstyles and clothes.
The center of the city has colonial era constructions such as the Santo Domingo Monastery from the 16th century, which is also the main cathedral. The former monastery part of the cathedral complex houses the Casa de Cultura or cultural center. The monastery was remodeled for this purpose at a cost of 50,000 pesos, mostly to rehabilitate walls and ceiling vaults. This Casa de Cultura houses the Museo de Antropología e Historia Zapoteca del Istmo, which contains archeological and artistic artifacts from the region. The museum has halls dedicated to archeology, ethnographic studies, the history of the Mexican Revolution
and the Reform War
, as well as items related to religion, regional dress, housing and folk art
. It also has a library.
The municipal palace was built during the railroad boom in the early 20th century. Covering an entire side of the main plaza, it today towers over the other buildings in the center. It is built in provincial Neoclassical style
with massive columns and arches. However, the back of the structure is very different, as it is an irregular pattern of brickwork, which looks like it has half collapsed. In reality, the structure was never completed. Since 1906, the city has promised to finish the building, but never has. Even the federal government in 1975 announced plans to not only finish the building but restore many of the churches and plazas, but they never came to fruition.
The most important institution in the city is the market. There are four traditional markets
with the most important of these located just off the main square. The main market building was built by the city in1970, with booths in this market now worth as much as $30,000 pesos
. The owners of the booths pay a small trust fee which is used for public works projects. These are supplemented by tianguis
markets in the Guichivere neighborhood on Wednesdays and one in Reoloteca neighborhood on Sundays. The market is the center of nearly all commerce in the city, with 95% of the goods small enough to carry sold there. As a result the city lacks department, electronics, clothing, jewelry and other types of stores.
The city’s markets are dominated by women, who make up nearly all of the buyers and sellers. Until the 1970s, there was a complete ban on men in this area, but this was relaxed at that time. Today still it is estimated that less than five percent of the people seen in the market are men. The historical reason for this is that traditionally women worked in the markets as men worked in the fields. Today still, men in the market can be subjected to taunts by the women who question their masculinity. The dominance of women in the markets, and the city in general in the daytime, made the city an interest starting in the 19th century. The writings of French traveler and historian Brasseur de Bourbourg
and later by Mexican educator José Vasconcelos
described Tehuantepec as a “matriarchial society.” Later writings would go as far as stating that the birth of a daughter was cause for celebration and men turned over their wages over to women. This depiction of the women of Tehuantepec focused on three facts, their dominance in the markets, the unreserved manner, often ridiculing men publicly, and the fact that they bathed partially nude in the local river. In the 20th century, painter Frida Kahlo
would adopt Tehuana traditional dress as a kind of solidarity with these women. However, much of women’s dominance seems to be limited to the market and household finances. They primarily earn money through commerce and have the right to use this income as they wish, regardless of what their husbands or other family members say. However, men dominate city and municipality politics in Tehuantepec and other areas in the southern Isthmus. Women may participate in strikes, protests and other political movements, but they do not generally hold positions of power such as municipal president, or councilmember. Even when they do, they hold positions of lesser power usually related to education and health.
The role model for Tehuana women was a woman by the name of Juana Cata Romero who lived in the late 19th and early 20th century. She began as a humble candy seller, but would rise to become a local power brokers and one of the most revered figures in the city. Romero rose to prominence by befriending a young soldier, then Lieutenant Colonel Porfirio Díaz
. Díaz was charged with guarding the town against plots and rebellions by Conservatives during the Reform War
. Juana Cata allied herself with Díaz’s cause by signaling opportune times to attack Conservative forces. Juana would become head of Díaz’s intelligence service as well as his lover for four decades, although both would marry others. The alliance would make Juana the richest and most powerful woman in Tehuantepec, owning various sugar and coconut plantations and even the Isthmus of Tehuantepec railroad was built to pass by her house.
Romero’s house remains in Tehuantepec, which was the only two-story structure in the town when it was built. It was designed to look like a French chalet
with north and west wings that come off of a circular entryway. The structure stands out from the surrounding 18th century Spanish architecture around it.
The city constructed a bronze statue of Romero but it is controversial. The statue depicts a stern, conservatively dressed woman holding an open book. Many claim the statue is a misrepresentation. The plinth
notes her works of charity in her later years, but the real reason she is admired is that she amassed her wealth and power using her looks and shrewdness, considered a Tehuana trait.
earrings. In addition, local specialties such as various mole sauces
such as negro, rojo, amarillo, coloradito, chichilo as well as tasajo, fresh corn quesadilla
s and tamale
s are served. While they began as religious festivals, today, most have lost their religious basis. Most of these velas occur in the summer. The vela of Santa María Reoloteca occurs between 13 and 18 August. The Vela of Guiexoba occurs at the beginning of the year. The neighborhood is divided into north and south into a friendly rivalry of who can bring the best musicians from various parts of the state. In addition there are city-wide velas such as the Vela Tehuantepec on 26 December, but the most important is the Vela Sandunga at the end of May.
The Vela Sandunga celebrates a song called La Sandunga, which is considered to be the region’s anthem, learned by all in the region. The lyrics were written by Maximo Ramon Ortiz in 1853, and honors Tehuantepec women. Ortiz supported the separation of the Isthmus area from the Mexican government to form the Territorio Libre del Tehuantepec and wrote the song in part to promote the idea of a separate Tehuantepec identity. The music is thought to be based on a melody from Andalucia and rearranged by Zapotec musician Andres Gutierrez or Ndre Sa’a, his name in Zapotec. It is considered to be a “mestizo”song because it contains both European and indigenous elements.
To commemorate the song’s creation, there is a large festival that lasts a week. It includes parties, and presentations of musicians from the Conservatoire de Paris
, which has a similar festival in honor of the opening of the opera La Traviata by Guiseppe Verdi. It also includes the election of a festival queen and a parade dedicated to the evolution of Tehuantepec traditional dress. The event ends with a procession in honor of Saint Dominic
, the patron saint of the Isthmus.
As of 2005, the municipality had a total of 13,555 homes, with almost all owned by their residents. Flooring varies from packed earth to brick and cement with walls of adobe, brick and block and with roofs of tiles or concrete slabs. As of 2005, there were just over 5,300 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total population of just over 55,000. The Pan-American Highway
passes through the municipality, connecting it to Salina Cruz
. Another highway connects it to Coatzacoalcos
.
Major elevations include El Zacatal (1,040 masl), Cerro de la Marimba (1,257masl), Guiengola (1,257) and Tecuani (700 masl). Within the city proper there are a number of hills which carry names such as El Tigre (Dani’i Guie Be’edxe in Zapotec), Crux Padre López, El Zopilote, Vixhana and La Cueva. All of these are under 425 meters above sea level. There one river with the same name, which cuts through the city. Its Zapotec name is Guigu Roo Guisii. This rivers starts in the Miahuatlán Sierra and empties into the Pacific Ocean at La Ventosa in Salina Cruz. The climate is hot and humid with rains in spring, summer and fall. It can be windy at times with prevailing winds blowing north to south or vice versa. The vegetation is mostly deciduous with Guanacaste
, oak, guirisiña, granadillo (Rhamnus alaternus
), mango
, chicozapote, hierba de cancer (Cuphea procumbens) and others dominating. Wildlife includes deer, armadillo
s, rabbits, eagles, quail
and mimus
.
and means “hill of the wild animals” or “hill of the demons.” The name was given to the area by the Aztec
s because of the ferocity of the native Zapotec warriors. The Zapotec name for the area is Guie-Ngola, or Large Hill/Rock, with the city name being Guisi’si Gui. Santo Domingo was added by Bartolomé de las Casas
as he passed by in honor of the Dominican church was had already been established here. From pre Hispanic times, the settlement has been represented by an Aztec glyph, the earliest example of which comes from the Guevea Codex, also known as the Zapotec Codex. This glyph is a hill with a jaguar. The hill is divided into sixty six parts and each part has a circle.
The archeology of the area around the city is little studied, in part because the main archeological sites are difficult to access and the climate of the southern Isthmus makes excavation work difficult. Much of the area’s early cultural interactions are only speculated about but it is known there was contact with Teotihuacan
, Tula
, Monte Alban
and later, Tenochtitlan . The Tehuantepec area in the very early Pre Classic period was on the periphery of the zone where the Olmec
s had influence as is noted by artifacts. The area’s initial importance was not as a center of a dominion but rather as part of a trade route which connected Central America
with what is now central Mexico. Through its trade routes passed manta ray
s, jade
, other precious stones, shells, sponges, gold, amber
, salt, feathers, furs, cotton, spices, honey and cocoa. The main control point for this trade route in this area was mostly likely Lass Gui’e’e, according to recent excavations. This site has a history of at least 3500 years with Olmec and Chiapas-origin figures found in its oldest sections. This and the abundance of marine shells indicate that this site in the Cañada de Tehuantepec was the main axis of communication between the Oaxacan highlands the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and into Guatemala since early in Mesoamerica
n history.
The Zapotec kingdom of Zaachila
expanded into the Tehuantepec area under Cosijoeza
starting in 1487, pushing the native Huaves to the narrow coastal strips around the Tehuantepec lagoon
s. With this, the Zapotecs gained control of the salt deposits of the area, which was a valuable commodity. Tehuantepec became a second Zapotec capital. This dominion had relations with the Aztecs but did not pay tribute and controlled the trade route to Central America. The influence of this dominion extended west to Nexapa and along the coast to Tlapanatepec. Tequixixtlan and Xallapan were subordinate dominions, ruled by governors sent from Tehuantepec. Tehuantepec increased in importance as the original capital of Zaachila came under pressure from the Mixtecs and later from the Aztecs by the end of the 15th century. The Aztecs’ interest here was the control the trade route between the Mexican Plateau
to Soconusco
in Chiapas and into Guatemala
. The Aztecs attacked Tehuantepec in 1496, and it was defended by an alliance of Mixtecs and Zapotecs. These two groups normally fought each other, but allied in the face of the foreign threat. This and the city’s formidable defenses led to a seven month siege under Aztec ruler Axayacatl
. The next Aztec chief Ahuiztotl, decided to marry his daughter Coyolicatzin to the Zapotec king Cosijoeza. This ended the war.
At the time of the Conquest and for some time after, the area was dominated by three linguistic groups, Zapotec, Mixe
and Chontal
, which are unrelated. The Zapotecs occupied the area from the Sierra Madre del Sur
and Xallapan up to Tehuantepec. The Chontales were found between Mazatlán and Tequixixtlan. The Mixes occupied the high mountain areas, centered in Utlatepec.
Cosijoeza’s son Cosijopii became the ruler of Tehuantepec shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in 1518. Pedro de Alvarado
made two incursions from the west in 1522 arriving to the Mixe area of Ultatepec and Xoconochco. Alvarado entered Tehuantepec again in 1524, subduing the local population in Tequixixtlan and Xallapan. However, many years would pass before the Spanish had full control of the area. After the Conquest, Cosijopii remained the head of the city, but subject to Spanish hegemony from 1521 until his death in 1563.
There is little information about the development of the Tehuantepec area during the colonial period, especially economically. However, one of the first colonial shipyards was established in the area. At the end of 1532, two ships were built to become part of the flotilla of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza
but they wrecked on the coast of what is now Jalisco
. Between 1536 and 1537 more ships were built that went to Peru
. This shipyard was placed near the Coatzacoalcos River
which is navigable. However, soon after Hernán Cortés
and other colonial authorities lost interest in the economic development of this area in favor of other areas. However, a main road called the Camino Real de Tehuantepec which connected it to other parts of what is now Oaxaca. The Spanish town of Tehuantepec was officially established by Dominican brothers Gregorio de Beteta and Bernardo de Alberquerer in 1538 and received a royal seal from Charles V
in 1543. The church and monastery were constructed starting in 1544. By 1550, the city had forty nine neighborhoods.
Further development of the Tehuantepec area focused on the Camino Real or Royal Road of Tehuantepec, which was built to control newly conquered areas, facilitate the collection of tribute and for commerce. Along the road, ranches and hacienda
s were established that would regularize the commerce and give social and political unity to the area. This process would give rise to conflicts between hacienda owners and the indigenous peoples as possession of lands changed. In 1660, the indigenous rebelled against Spanish authorities. The rebellion ended in 1661 in part because Philip IV
put the city under direct control of the Spanish crown and issued a pardon to the rebels.
In the mid 19th century, the United States pressured Mexico for transit rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the aim of building a road, railway or canal for the purpose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans for trade. Pressure was greatest during the Mexican American War, when these transit rights were part of the first attempts at talks to end the war. However, this was not included in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
. During negotiations for the Gadsden Purchase
, the issue came up again but transit rights were again denied. Despite strong interests in the area, the U.S. Army never invaded Tehuantepec, even though troops had gone as far south as southern Veracruz
. However, the war drained the south of the country of soldiers and lessened control from Mexico City. As a result, the Isthmus area rebelled against rule from the city of Oaxaca. In 1850, the first plan to separate the Tehuantepec area from Oaxaca took shape. The result was regaining of a certain amount of autonomy. A second attempt took place in 1853.
Tehuantepec gained municipal status in 1857 and town status in 1857. The Reform Laws
secularized most of the lands of the Dominican order
in the area.
Tehuantepec’s “Golden Age” began in the early 20th century with the building and operation of the trans-Isthmus railroad, which then provided the shortest trade route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. At its height, the line carried fifty trains per day, making one of the busiest railways in history. The goods and travelers brought money to the town and it grew. However, the boom ended shortly thereafter with the completion of the Panama Canal
in 1914.
The Pan-American Highway
came through the area in the middle of the 20th century, which connected it with the rest of Mexico and by extension all the Americas. Shortly after, a modern highway connecting it to the city of Oaxaca
was constructed.
The southern Isthmus area of Tehuantepec and Juchitán have had sporadic bouts of unrest since the late 1960s, paralleling conflicts which were occurring in other parts of Mexico. This trend would continue from the 1970s to the 1990s, mostly focused on the activities of the Tehuantepec diocese
under bishop Arturo Lona Reyes
, who led from 1971 to his retirement in 2000. The Diocese of Tehuantepec was part of a movement to mobilize the poor and indigenous in the 1980s and 1990s, allied with other elements of the Catholic Church in Oaxaca, the CEDIPIO and others. This movement was based on the teachings of liberation theology. Bishop Arturo Lona was a strong supporter of the teachings of Vatican II calling for the creation of a “people’s church”. The Oaxaca church was allied with Diocese of Chiapas
under Bishop Samuel Ruiz
. The pastoral style of these Oaxacan and Chiapas churches came to be known as the “pastoral indígena” or indigenous pastoral and was focused explicitly on working with the most marginalized segments of society. He instituted a health clinic just outside the city of Tehuantepec basic hospital facilities and the promotion of natural medicine with the training of local healers called curandero
s. There is also an ecological center on the same site promoting recycling and organic fertilizer for the area’s agriculture.
During the 1980s, the diocese faced violence by regional power-holders, with two serious assassination attempts in the years before Lona’s retirement. The goal of these groups was to suppress further political activitism similar to the Zapatista uprising in Chiapas. Attacks against Lona and allies would continue into the 1990s. Liberation theology remained center of the diocese while Lona remained bishop although it lost power in the 1990s as the country moved towards neoliberal policies as well as the Church’s own gradual abandonment of liberation theology. Arturo Lona Reyes was one of the last of church leaders aligned with Liberation Theology.
The retirement of Bishop Arturo Lona Reyes drew about four thousand people, mostly native Zapotecs and Mixes. His work was recognized by the Archbishop of Oaxaca over 29 years in Tehuantepec. Lona Reyes retired from the official post but remained head of a religious group called the Iglesia Universal. The bishop stated that his “Opción por los Pobres” (Choice for the Poor) program which he heads would remain intact after he hands his resignation to the Vatican. In the “Church of the People” the offering consist of food and gifts brought by hundreds of indigenous. The bishop’s sermons often contained references to those “excluded from the system,” “community cooperatives” and “human rights.” The current bishop of Tehuantepec is Oscar Armando Campos Cantreras.
The rail line that had been the source of Tehuantepec’s boom in the early 20th century steadily declined over the remainder of the century. It and the rest in the country were privatized in 2001, but the 24 km nearest the city has become virtually abandoned with workstations dismantled and equipment sold off. This put a final end to the rail based economy of the city, especially in the Reoloteca neighborhood.
Since then, there have been several attempts to resurrect the line crossing the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The purpose of the project is to create a competitor to the overcrowded Panama Canal. It would be a rail line between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific at Tehuantepec, modernizing and extending existing rail lines. This type of project was initially proposed in 1980 again in 1997, 2006 and 2009. Versions of the project would have infrastructure built in Tehuantepec and in the nearby port of Salina Cruz. However, the project has not come to fruition with the main impediment being the large initial investment.
Despite an income of 100 million pesos a year, the municipality has had problems with bankruptcy and few works to show for the money in 2009. The municipal president was accused of embezzling the money, leaving the city with one of its worst crises in its history.
, sesame seed, melons, cucumbers, squash, peanuts and flowers. Livestock includes cattle, pigs and goats. The Union of Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus Region
, a cooperative founded in 1982, assists in production and distribution of the local products, notably coffee, under a fair trade
label.
Twenty five percent work in industry, mining and construction. Industry is limited to a water purification facility, a ice plant and one that processes calcium oxide (calidra). Limestone is mined as well. The most typical handcraft of the area is the traditional dress. There is also the production of ceramics especially for the kitchen as well as decorative items and toys.
Fifty one percent work in commerce, tourism and services. Most of the commerce serves local needs with some serving regional customers and tourists. There are two four-star hotels, one two star hotel and nine guesthouses. The municipality also has water parks and beaches.
, Gola, Gui’ngola or Guien-Gola. It and a nearby volcanic cone were fortified with walls, trenches and towers on the slopes. On the summit, terraces, bases, pyramids and temples were constructed with slabs of stone covered in stucco. The fortress city also had pens of deer and wild boar as well as artificial ponds with fish to act as food reserves. The area is filled with small ravines, which makes access more difficult. The fortifications served will in the 1490s, when the Aztecs laid siege to the city, but were unable to definitely conquer it after seven months.
The summit offers a panoramic view of a large part of the area as it extends over the plains. Many of the original walls and other structures remain more than 700 years after they were built. There are some underground chambers. At the top of the hill, there are small pyramids oriented east-west and a type of shrine with circular walls along with a principle residence. The main plaza contains a Mesoamerican ball court facing east. There are also two cylindrical structures which may have been astronomical observatories. The archeological zone is located about twelve km from the modern city along Federal Highway 190. From there a dirt road leads to the hill four km away.
Two reason the area have been studied well by archeologists is that the area is difficult to get to and the hot climate. Zapotec fortresses can be also found in Nexapa, Maxaltepec, Quievicuasa, Quiechapa and Quiecolani, which likely were controlled by Tehuantepec.
Municipalities of Mexico
Municipalities are the second-level administrative division in Mexico . There are 2,438 municipalities in Mexico, making the average municipality population 45,616...
in the southeast of the Mexican
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
state
States of Mexico
The United Mexican States is a federal republic formed by 32 federal entities .According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free and sovereign. Each state has their own congress and constitution, while the Federal District has only limited autonomy with a local Congress...
of Oaxaca
Oaxaca
Oaxaca , , officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 are governed by the system of customs and traditions...
. It is part of the Tehuantepec District
Tehuantepec District, Oaxaca
Tehuantepec District is located in the west of the Istmo Region of the State of Oaxaca, Mexico.It includes the cities of Salina Cruz and Tehuantepec.-Municipalities:The district includes the following municipalities:...
in the west of the Istmo Region
Istmo de Tehuantepec, Oaxaca
Istmo de Tehuantepec is the largest region in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. It covers the southern part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the shortest route between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean before the Panama Canal was opened....
. The area was important in pre Hispanic period as part of a trade route that connected Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
with what is now the center of Mexico. Later it became a secondary capital of the Zapotec dominion
Zapotec civilization
The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence shows their culture goes back at least 2500 years...
, before it was conquered by the Spanish in the early 16th century.
The city is still the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and is the second largest in the region. The city is known for its women and their traditional dress, which was adopted by Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo de Rivera was a Mexican painter, born in Coyoacán, and perhaps best known for her self-portraits....
. Tehuantepec has a reputation for being a “matriarchal society.” Women do dominate the local markets and are known to taunt men. However, political power is still the domain of men. The city experienced a short economic boom in the early 20th century related to a rail line that was built linking the two oceans, but it was soon eclipsed by the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
. There have been plans to resurrect the line linking the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean but financing has been a problem.
Description and History
Tehuantepec is the second largest city in the Isthmus of TehuantepecIsthmus of Tehuantepec
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an isthmus in Mexico. It represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, and prior to the opening of the Panama Canal was a major shipping route known simply as the Tehuantepec Route...
, in the south of Mexico. Founded by the Zapotecs
Zapotec civilization
The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence shows their culture goes back at least 2500 years...
in the period just before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, Tehuantepec remains the center of Zapotec culture in the Isthmus. One important symbol of this culture is the image of a Zapotec woman from the area called La Tehuana. In the 2000s, a sculpture of this figure was created by Miguel Hernández Urbán from the State of Mexico. The sculpture is found at the main entrance to the city of Tehuantepec, made of local marble and fine wood along with stainless steel brought from Mexico City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
. The work made Hernández an "adopted son" of the city. The city remains home to many traditions and customs which are centuries old, with many, especially in the market, still favoring the Zapotec language over Spanish. The city reached its height in the early 20th century with the arrival of the railroad. However, since then the importance of this railroad has severely diminished by the building of the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
. Today the city is considered to be poor, with many of its buildings in disrepair. Many survive on subsistence commerce. Many motorcycle taxi operators in Tehuantepec and other cities in Oaxaca are underage, between 13 and 15. The city also has had problems with stray dogs including an incident when about twenty dogs took over the main entrance.
Tehuantepec and nearby Juchitán
Juchitán de Zaragoza
Juchitán de Zaragoza is an indigenous town in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca.It is part of the Juchitán District in the west of the Istmo de Tehuantepec region...
have had a fierce rivalry which dates back to the 19th century. In 1862, Napoleon III sent French troops to collect on debts Mexico owed
French intervention in Mexico
The French intervention in Mexico , also known as The Maximilian Affair, War of the French Intervention, and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by an expeditionary force sent by the Second French Empire, supported in the beginning by the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Spain...
. These French allied themselves with Mexican conservatives who allowed them to occupy the Isthmus area. Both Juchitán and Tehuantepec resisted the occupation until a captain in Tehuantepec switched sides. When the Juchitecos learned of this, they attacked Tehuantepec but were defeated. Four year later, this same captain attacked Juchitán but was defeated as well. After the French left in 1862, Juchitán attacked Tehuantepec again for revenge. Although there has been no bloodshed since them, the bad blood and rivalry has remained to this day. Each has tried to outdo the other in festivals in both number and size. The two communities demean each other in looks, hairstyles and clothes.
The center of the city has colonial era constructions such as the Santo Domingo Monastery from the 16th century, which is also the main cathedral. The former monastery part of the cathedral complex houses the Casa de Cultura or cultural center. The monastery was remodeled for this purpose at a cost of 50,000 pesos, mostly to rehabilitate walls and ceiling vaults. This Casa de Cultura houses the Museo de Antropología e Historia Zapoteca del Istmo, which contains archeological and artistic artifacts from the region. The museum has halls dedicated to archeology, ethnographic studies, the history of the Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz. The Revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist, populist, and agrarianist movements. Over time the Revolution...
and the Reform War
Reform War
The Reform War in Mexico is one of the episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country...
, as well as items related to religion, regional dress, housing and folk art
Mexican handcrafts and folk art
Mexican handcrafts and folk art is a complex collection of items made with various materials and intended for utilitarian, decorative or other purposes. Some of the items produced by hand in this country include ceramics, wall hangings, vases, furniture, textiles and much more...
. It also has a library.
The municipal palace was built during the railroad boom in the early 20th century. Covering an entire side of the main plaza, it today towers over the other buildings in the center. It is built in provincial Neoclassical style
Neoclassical architecture
Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century, manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing...
with massive columns and arches. However, the back of the structure is very different, as it is an irregular pattern of brickwork, which looks like it has half collapsed. In reality, the structure was never completed. Since 1906, the city has promised to finish the building, but never has. Even the federal government in 1975 announced plans to not only finish the building but restore many of the churches and plazas, but they never came to fruition.
The most important institution in the city is the market. There are four traditional markets
Traditional fixed markets in Mexico
Traditional fixed markets in Mexico go by a variety of names such as "mercados públicos" , "mercados municipales" or even more often simply "mercados"...
with the most important of these located just off the main square. The main market building was built by the city in1970, with booths in this market now worth as much as $30,000 pesos
Mexican peso
The peso is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 15th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$". The Mexican peso is the 12th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded in the Americas, and by far the most...
. The owners of the booths pay a small trust fee which is used for public works projects. These are supplemented by tianguis
Tianguis
A tianguis is an open air market or bazaar that is traditionally held on certain market days in a town or city neighborhood in Mexico and Central America. This bazaar tradition has its roots well into the pre-Hispanic period and continues in many cases essentially unchanged into the present day....
markets in the Guichivere neighborhood on Wednesdays and one in Reoloteca neighborhood on Sundays. The market is the center of nearly all commerce in the city, with 95% of the goods small enough to carry sold there. As a result the city lacks department, electronics, clothing, jewelry and other types of stores.
The city’s markets are dominated by women, who make up nearly all of the buyers and sellers. Until the 1970s, there was a complete ban on men in this area, but this was relaxed at that time. Today still it is estimated that less than five percent of the people seen in the market are men. The historical reason for this is that traditionally women worked in the markets as men worked in the fields. Today still, men in the market can be subjected to taunts by the women who question their masculinity. The dominance of women in the markets, and the city in general in the daytime, made the city an interest starting in the 19th century. The writings of French traveler and historian Brasseur de Bourbourg
Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg
Abbé Charles-Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg was a noted French writer, ethnographer, historian and archaeologist...
and later by Mexican educator José Vasconcelos
José Vasconcelos
José Vasconcelos Calderón was a Mexican writer, philosopher and politician. He is one of the most influential and controversial personalities in the development of modern Mexico. His philosophy of "indigenismo" affected all aspects of Mexican sociocultural, political, and economic...
described Tehuantepec as a “matriarchial society.” Later writings would go as far as stating that the birth of a daughter was cause for celebration and men turned over their wages over to women. This depiction of the women of Tehuantepec focused on three facts, their dominance in the markets, the unreserved manner, often ridiculing men publicly, and the fact that they bathed partially nude in the local river. In the 20th century, painter Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo de Rivera was a Mexican painter, born in Coyoacán, and perhaps best known for her self-portraits....
would adopt Tehuana traditional dress as a kind of solidarity with these women. However, much of women’s dominance seems to be limited to the market and household finances. They primarily earn money through commerce and have the right to use this income as they wish, regardless of what their husbands or other family members say. However, men dominate city and municipality politics in Tehuantepec and other areas in the southern Isthmus. Women may participate in strikes, protests and other political movements, but they do not generally hold positions of power such as municipal president, or councilmember. Even when they do, they hold positions of lesser power usually related to education and health.
The role model for Tehuana women was a woman by the name of Juana Cata Romero who lived in the late 19th and early 20th century. She began as a humble candy seller, but would rise to become a local power brokers and one of the most revered figures in the city. Romero rose to prominence by befriending a young soldier, then Lieutenant Colonel Porfirio Díaz
Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican-American War volunteer and French intervention hero, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N...
. Díaz was charged with guarding the town against plots and rebellions by Conservatives during the Reform War
Reform War
The Reform War in Mexico is one of the episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country...
. Juana Cata allied herself with Díaz’s cause by signaling opportune times to attack Conservative forces. Juana would become head of Díaz’s intelligence service as well as his lover for four decades, although both would marry others. The alliance would make Juana the richest and most powerful woman in Tehuantepec, owning various sugar and coconut plantations and even the Isthmus of Tehuantepec railroad was built to pass by her house.
Romero’s house remains in Tehuantepec, which was the only two-story structure in the town when it was built. It was designed to look like a French chalet
Chalet
A chalet , also called Swiss chalet, is a type of building or house, native to the Alpine region, made of wood, with a heavy, gently sloping roof with wide, well-supported eaves set at right angles to the front of the house.-Definition and origin:...
with north and west wings that come off of a circular entryway. The structure stands out from the surrounding 18th century Spanish architecture around it.
The city constructed a bronze statue of Romero but it is controversial. The statue depicts a stern, conservatively dressed woman holding an open book. Many claim the statue is a misrepresentation. The plinth
Plinth
In architecture, a plinth is the base or platform upon which a column, pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests. Gottfried Semper's The Four Elements of Architecture posited that the plinth, the hearth, the roof, and the wall make up all of architectural theory. The plinth usually rests...
notes her works of charity in her later years, but the real reason she is admired is that she amassed her wealth and power using her looks and shrewdness, considered a Tehuana trait.
Velas
The rest of the city is divided into fifteen neighborhoods called barrios, each of which has its own church. Each of these churches have their own patron saint, which is celebrated each year during an event called a “vela.” Velas are celebrations of pre Hispanic origin which occur in each neighborhood in the Isthmus area which consist of processions in the main streets and the offering of a ceremonial candle to the patron saint. Each of the “velas” are organized by a mayordomo and includes a “queen” who is crowned with flowers. These velas became annual events starting in the 19th century with European elements such as balls or dances added. These dances have fabrics for decoration, like in Europe in the 19th century, but these have been modified with include indigenous designs, many laboriously embroidered by hand. For these and other special events, women may wear traditional Tehuana dress, with consists of heavily embroidered garments accessorized with large amounts of gold jewelry. This jewelry often contains old, gold bearing coins and gold filigreeFiligree
Filigree is a delicate kind of jewellery metalwork made with twisted threads usually of gold and silver or stitching of the same curving motifs. It often suggests lace, and in recent centuries remains popular in Indian and other Asian metalwork, and French from 1660 to the late 19th century...
earrings. In addition, local specialties such as various mole sauces
Mole (sauce)
Mole is the generic name for a number of sauces used in Mexican cuisine, as well as for dishes based on these sauces...
such as negro, rojo, amarillo, coloradito, chichilo as well as tasajo, fresh corn quesadilla
Quesadilla
A quesadilla is a flour or corn tortilla filled with a savoury mixture containing cheese and other ingredients, then folded in half to form a half-moon shape. This dish originated in Mexico, and the name is derived from the Spanish word queso ....
s and tamale
Tamale
A tamale — or more correctly tamal — is a traditional Latin American dish made of masa , which is steamed or boiled in a leaf wrapper. The wrapping is discarded before eating...
s are served. While they began as religious festivals, today, most have lost their religious basis. Most of these velas occur in the summer. The vela of Santa María Reoloteca occurs between 13 and 18 August. The Vela of Guiexoba occurs at the beginning of the year. The neighborhood is divided into north and south into a friendly rivalry of who can bring the best musicians from various parts of the state. In addition there are city-wide velas such as the Vela Tehuantepec on 26 December, but the most important is the Vela Sandunga at the end of May.
The Vela Sandunga celebrates a song called La Sandunga, which is considered to be the region’s anthem, learned by all in the region. The lyrics were written by Maximo Ramon Ortiz in 1853, and honors Tehuantepec women. Ortiz supported the separation of the Isthmus area from the Mexican government to form the Territorio Libre del Tehuantepec and wrote the song in part to promote the idea of a separate Tehuantepec identity. The music is thought to be based on a melody from Andalucia and rearranged by Zapotec musician Andres Gutierrez or Ndre Sa’a, his name in Zapotec. It is considered to be a “mestizo”song because it contains both European and indigenous elements.
To commemorate the song’s creation, there is a large festival that lasts a week. It includes parties, and presentations of musicians from the Conservatoire de Paris
Conservatoire de Paris
The Conservatoire de Paris is a college of music and dance founded in 1795, now situated in the avenue Jean Jaurès in the 19th arrondissement of Paris, France...
, which has a similar festival in honor of the opening of the opera La Traviata by Guiseppe Verdi. It also includes the election of a festival queen and a parade dedicated to the evolution of Tehuantepec traditional dress. The event ends with a procession in honor of Saint Dominic
Saint Dominic
Saint Dominic , also known as Dominic of Osma, often called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo Félix de Guzmán was the founder of the Friars Preachers, popularly called the Dominicans or Order of Preachers , a Catholic religious order...
, the patron saint of the Isthmus.
The municipality
As the municipal seat, the city of Tehuantepec is the local governing authority for about 120 communities, which together cover an area of 965.8km2. The main communities of the municipality outside the city proper are Concepción Bamba, Morro Mazatán, San José El Paraíso, Santa Cruz Bamba, Santa Isabel de la Reforma, Aguascalientes de Mazatán, Buenos Aires, Colonia Jordán, Guelaguechi, Las Cruces, Potrero de Carballo, Potrero de San Miguel Tenango, Rincón Moreno, San Francisco, San Juan Zaragoza, Santa Gertrudis Miramar, Zanjón y Garrapatero, Cajón de Piedra, Pishishi, San Vicente Mazatán, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz Hidalgo, Colonia San Luis, El Limón, La Noria, San Andrés Villa Zapata, Santa Rita and Ejido El Jordán. It borders the municipalities of Santa María Jalapa de Marqués, Santa María Mixtequilla, Magdalena Tlacotepec, San Pedro Huamelula, San Miguel Tenango, Magdalena Tequisistlán, San Pedro Comitancillo, San Blas Atempa and Salina Cruz with the Pacific Ocean to the south. The municipal government consists of a municipal president, two “sindicos” and 17 officials called regidores.As of 2005, the municipality had a total of 13,555 homes, with almost all owned by their residents. Flooring varies from packed earth to brick and cement with walls of adobe, brick and block and with roofs of tiles or concrete slabs. As of 2005, there were just over 5,300 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total population of just over 55,000. The Pan-American Highway
Pan-American Highway
The Pan-American Highway is a network of roads measuring about in total length. Except for an rainforest break, called the Darién Gap, the road links the mainland nations of the Americas in a connected highway system. According to Guinness World Records, the Pan-American Highway is the world's...
passes through the municipality, connecting it to Salina Cruz
Salina Cruz
Salina Cruz is a major seaport on the Pacific coast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is the state's third-largest city and is municipal seat of the municipality of the same name.It is part of the Tehuantepec District in the west of the Istmo Region....
. Another highway connects it to Coatzacoalcos
Coatzacoalcos
Coatzacoalcos is a major port city in the southern part of the Mexican state of Veracruz, on the Coatzacoalcos River. Coatzacoalcos comes from an indigenous word meaning "Site of the Snake" or "Where the snake hides"...
.
Major elevations include El Zacatal (1,040 masl), Cerro de la Marimba (1,257masl), Guiengola (1,257) and Tecuani (700 masl). Within the city proper there are a number of hills which carry names such as El Tigre (Dani’i Guie Be’edxe in Zapotec), Crux Padre López, El Zopilote, Vixhana and La Cueva. All of these are under 425 meters above sea level. There one river with the same name, which cuts through the city. Its Zapotec name is Guigu Roo Guisii. This rivers starts in the Miahuatlán Sierra and empties into the Pacific Ocean at La Ventosa in Salina Cruz. The climate is hot and humid with rains in spring, summer and fall. It can be windy at times with prevailing winds blowing north to south or vice versa. The vegetation is mostly deciduous with Guanacaste
Guanacaste Province
Guanacaste is a province of Costa Rica located in the northwestern part of the country, along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. To the north it borders Nicaragua. To the east is the Alajuela Province, and to the southeast is the Puntarenas Province. It is the most sparsely populated of all the...
, oak, guirisiña, granadillo (Rhamnus alaternus
Rhamnus alaternus
Rhamnus alaternus is a species of flowering plant in the buckthorn family known by the common name of Italian Buckthorn or Mediterranean Buckthorn.-Etymology:...
), mango
Mango
The mango is a fleshy stone fruit belonging to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is native to India from where it spread all over the world. It is also the most cultivated fruit of the tropical world. While...
, chicozapote, hierba de cancer (Cuphea procumbens) and others dominating. Wildlife includes deer, armadillo
Armadillo
Armadillos are New World placental mammals, known for having a leathery armor shell. Dasypodidae is the only surviving family in the order Cingulata, part of the superorder Xenarthra along with the anteaters and sloths. The word armadillo is Spanish for "little armored one"...
s, rabbits, eagles, quail
Quail
Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally considered in the order Galliformes. Old World quail are found in the family Phasianidae, while New World quail are found in the family Odontophoridae...
and mimus
Mimus
Mimus is a bird genus in the family Mimidae. It contains the typical mockingbirds. In 2007, the genus Nesomimus was merged into Mimus by the American Ornithologists' Union.The following species are placed here:...
.
History
The full name of the city and municipality is Santo Domingo Tehuantepec. “Tehuantepec” comes from NahuatlNahuatl
Nahuatl is thought to mean "a good, clear sound" This language name has several spellings, among them náhuatl , Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl. In a back formation from the name of the language, the ethnic group of Nahuatl speakers are called Nahua...
and means “hill of the wild animals” or “hill of the demons.” The name was given to the area by the Aztec
Aztec
The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the late post-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology.Aztec is the...
s because of the ferocity of the native Zapotec warriors. The Zapotec name for the area is Guie-Ngola, or Large Hill/Rock, with the city name being Guisi’si Gui. Santo Domingo was added by Bartolomé de las Casas
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Bartolomé de las Casas O.P. was a 16th-century Spanish historian, social reformer and Dominican friar. He became the first resident Bishop of Chiapas, and the first officially appointed "Protector of the Indians"...
as he passed by in honor of the Dominican church was had already been established here. From pre Hispanic times, the settlement has been represented by an Aztec glyph, the earliest example of which comes from the Guevea Codex, also known as the Zapotec Codex. This glyph is a hill with a jaguar. The hill is divided into sixty six parts and each part has a circle.
The archeology of the area around the city is little studied, in part because the main archeological sites are difficult to access and the climate of the southern Isthmus makes excavation work difficult. Much of the area’s early cultural interactions are only speculated about but it is known there was contact with Teotihuacan
Teotihuacan
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas...
, Tula
Tula, Hidalgo
Tula, formally, Tula de Allende, is a town and one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo, in central-eastern Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 305.8 km² , and as of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 93,296, with 28,432 in the town...
, Monte Alban
Monte Albán
Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán Municipality in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca...
and later, Tenochtitlan . The Tehuantepec area in the very early Pre Classic period was on the periphery of the zone where the Olmec
Olmec
The Olmec were the first major Pre-Columbian civilization in Mexico. They lived in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco....
s had influence as is noted by artifacts. The area’s initial importance was not as a center of a dominion but rather as part of a trade route which connected Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
with what is now central Mexico. Through its trade routes passed manta ray
Manta ray
The manta ray is the largest species of the rays. The largest known specimen was more than across, with a weight of about . It ranges throughout waters of the world, typically around coral reefs...
s, jade
Jade
Jade is an ornamental stone.The term jade is applied to two different metamorphic rocks that are made up of different silicate minerals:...
, other precious stones, shells, sponges, gold, amber
Amber
Amber is fossilized tree resin , which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a healing agent in folk medicine, and as jewelry. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents...
, salt, feathers, furs, cotton, spices, honey and cocoa. The main control point for this trade route in this area was mostly likely Lass Gui’e’e, according to recent excavations. This site has a history of at least 3500 years with Olmec and Chiapas-origin figures found in its oldest sections. This and the abundance of marine shells indicate that this site in the Cañada de Tehuantepec was the main axis of communication between the Oaxacan highlands the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and into Guatemala since early in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...
n history.
The Zapotec kingdom of Zaachila
Zaachila
Zaachila was a powerful Mesoamerican city in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, 6 km from the city of Oaxaca. The city is named after Zaachila Yoo, the Zapotec ruler, in the late 14th and early 15th century. It is now an archaeological site...
expanded into the Tehuantepec area under Cosijoeza
Cosijoeza
Cosijoeza or Cocijoeza was the fourth ruler of the Zapotec kingdom of Zaachila from 1487 until his death in 1529. He led an alliance of Zapotecs and Mixtecs against the armies of the Aztecs....
starting in 1487, pushing the native Huaves to the narrow coastal strips around the Tehuantepec lagoon
Lagoon
A lagoon is a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form of barrier. The EU's habitat directive defines lagoons as "expanses of shallow coastal salt water, of varying salinity or water volume, wholly or partially separated from the sea by sand banks or shingle,...
s. With this, the Zapotecs gained control of the salt deposits of the area, which was a valuable commodity. Tehuantepec became a second Zapotec capital. This dominion had relations with the Aztecs but did not pay tribute and controlled the trade route to Central America. The influence of this dominion extended west to Nexapa and along the coast to Tlapanatepec. Tequixixtlan and Xallapan were subordinate dominions, ruled by governors sent from Tehuantepec. Tehuantepec increased in importance as the original capital of Zaachila came under pressure from the Mixtecs and later from the Aztecs by the end of the 15th century. The Aztecs’ interest here was the control the trade route between the Mexican Plateau
Mexican Plateau
The Central Mexican Plateau, also known as the Mexican Altiplano or Altiplanicie Mexicana, is a large arid-to-semiarid plateau that occupies much of northern and central Mexico...
to Soconusco
Soconusco
Soconusco is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas, located in the extreme south of the state and separated from Guatemala by the Suchiate River. It is a region of rich lowlands and foothills. The economic center is Tapachula. Soconusco consists of 16 municipalities.The name comes from the...
in Chiapas and into Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast...
. The Aztecs attacked Tehuantepec in 1496, and it was defended by an alliance of Mixtecs and Zapotecs. These two groups normally fought each other, but allied in the face of the foreign threat. This and the city’s formidable defenses led to a seven month siege under Aztec ruler Axayacatl
Axayacatl
Axayacatl was the sixth Aztec Emperor, a ruler of the Postclassic Mesoamerican Aztec Empire and city of Tenochtitlan, who reigned from 1469 to 1481.He is chiefly remembered for subjugating Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, in 1473....
. The next Aztec chief Ahuiztotl, decided to marry his daughter Coyolicatzin to the Zapotec king Cosijoeza. This ended the war.
At the time of the Conquest and for some time after, the area was dominated by three linguistic groups, Zapotec, Mixe
Mixe
The Mixe or Mije is an indigenous group inhabiting the eastern highlands of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. They speak the Mixe languages which are classified in the Mixe–Zoque family, and are more culturally conservative than other indigenous groups of the region, maintaining their language to this...
and Chontal
Chontal
The Chontal Maya are an indigenous people of the Mexican state of Tabasco. "Chontal", from the Nahuatl word for chontalli, which means "foreigner", has been applied to various ethnic groups in Mexico...
, which are unrelated. The Zapotecs occupied the area from the Sierra Madre del Sur
Sierra Madre del Sur
The Sierra Madre del Sur is a mountain range in southern Mexico, extending from southern Michoacán east through Guerrero, to the Istmo de Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca.-Geography:...
and Xallapan up to Tehuantepec. The Chontales were found between Mazatlán and Tequixixtlan. The Mixes occupied the high mountain areas, centered in Utlatepec.
Cosijoeza’s son Cosijopii became the ruler of Tehuantepec shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in 1518. Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the coasts of Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico, and in the conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes...
made two incursions from the west in 1522 arriving to the Mixe area of Ultatepec and Xoconochco. Alvarado entered Tehuantepec again in 1524, subduing the local population in Tequixixtlan and Xallapan. However, many years would pass before the Spanish had full control of the area. After the Conquest, Cosijopii remained the head of the city, but subject to Spanish hegemony from 1521 until his death in 1563.
There is little information about the development of the Tehuantepec area during the colonial period, especially economically. However, one of the first colonial shipyards was established in the area. At the end of 1532, two ships were built to become part of the flotilla of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza
Diego Hurtado de Mendoza
Diego Hurtado de Mendoza , Spanish novelist, poet, diplomat and historian, a younger son of the count of Tendillas, governor of Granada, was born in that city in 1503...
but they wrecked on the coast of what is now Jalisco
Jalisco
Jalisco officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided in 125 municipalities and its capital city is Guadalajara.It is one of the more important states...
. Between 1536 and 1537 more ships were built that went to Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
. This shipyard was placed near the Coatzacoalcos River
Coatzacoalcos River
The Coatzacoalcos is a large river that feeds mainly the south part of the state of Veracruz; it originates in the Sierra de Niltepec and crosses the state of Oaxaca in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, flowing for toward the Gulf of Mexico. Tributaries include El Corte, Sarabia,...
which is navigable. However, soon after Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century...
and other colonial authorities lost interest in the economic development of this area in favor of other areas. However, a main road called the Camino Real de Tehuantepec which connected it to other parts of what is now Oaxaca. The Spanish town of Tehuantepec was officially established by Dominican brothers Gregorio de Beteta and Bernardo de Alberquerer in 1538 and received a royal seal from Charles V
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
in 1543. The church and monastery were constructed starting in 1544. By 1550, the city had forty nine neighborhoods.
Further development of the Tehuantepec area focused on the Camino Real or Royal Road of Tehuantepec, which was built to control newly conquered areas, facilitate the collection of tribute and for commerce. Along the road, ranches and hacienda
Hacienda
Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities...
s were established that would regularize the commerce and give social and political unity to the area. This process would give rise to conflicts between hacienda owners and the indigenous peoples as possession of lands changed. In 1660, the indigenous rebelled against Spanish authorities. The rebellion ended in 1661 in part because Philip IV
Philip IV of Spain
Philip IV was King of Spain between 1621 and 1665, sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands, and King of Portugal until 1640...
put the city under direct control of the Spanish crown and issued a pardon to the rebels.
In the mid 19th century, the United States pressured Mexico for transit rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the aim of building a road, railway or canal for the purpose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans for trade. Pressure was greatest during the Mexican American War, when these transit rights were part of the first attempts at talks to end the war. However, this was not included in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is the peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to the interim government of a militarily occupied Mexico City, that ended the Mexican-American War on February 2, 1848...
. During negotiations for the Gadsden Purchase
Gadsden Purchase
The Gadsden Purchase is a region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by James Gadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico at the time, on December 30, 1853. It was then ratified, with changes, by the U.S...
, the issue came up again but transit rights were again denied. Despite strong interests in the area, the U.S. Army never invaded Tehuantepec, even though troops had gone as far south as southern Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave , is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is...
. However, the war drained the south of the country of soldiers and lessened control from Mexico City. As a result, the Isthmus area rebelled against rule from the city of Oaxaca. In 1850, the first plan to separate the Tehuantepec area from Oaxaca took shape. The result was regaining of a certain amount of autonomy. A second attempt took place in 1853.
Tehuantepec gained municipal status in 1857 and town status in 1857. The Reform Laws
Reform War
The Reform War in Mexico is one of the episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country...
secularized most of the lands of the Dominican order
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
in the area.
Tehuantepec’s “Golden Age” began in the early 20th century with the building and operation of the trans-Isthmus railroad, which then provided the shortest trade route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. At its height, the line carried fifty trains per day, making one of the busiest railways in history. The goods and travelers brought money to the town and it grew. However, the boom ended shortly thereafter with the completion of the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
in 1914.
The Pan-American Highway
Pan-American Highway
The Pan-American Highway is a network of roads measuring about in total length. Except for an rainforest break, called the Darién Gap, the road links the mainland nations of the Americas in a connected highway system. According to Guinness World Records, the Pan-American Highway is the world's...
came through the area in the middle of the 20th century, which connected it with the rest of Mexico and by extension all the Americas. Shortly after, a modern highway connecting it to the city of Oaxaca
Oaxaca, Oaxaca
The city and municipality of Oaxaca de Juárez, or simply Oaxaca, is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of the same name . It is located in the Centro District in the Central Valleys region of the state, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre at the base of the Cerro del Fortín...
was constructed.
The southern Isthmus area of Tehuantepec and Juchitán have had sporadic bouts of unrest since the late 1960s, paralleling conflicts which were occurring in other parts of Mexico. This trend would continue from the 1970s to the 1990s, mostly focused on the activities of the Tehuantepec diocese
Roman Catholic Diocese of Tehuantepec
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Tehuantepec is in Mexico and is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Antequera, Oaxaca....
under bishop Arturo Lona Reyes
Arturo Lona Reyes
Arturo Lona Reyes is the former Catholic bishop from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. He served in his position for 30 years before resigning from his diocese in 2001.-Tehuantepec diocese:...
, who led from 1971 to his retirement in 2000. The Diocese of Tehuantepec was part of a movement to mobilize the poor and indigenous in the 1980s and 1990s, allied with other elements of the Catholic Church in Oaxaca, the CEDIPIO and others. This movement was based on the teachings of liberation theology. Bishop Arturo Lona was a strong supporter of the teachings of Vatican II calling for the creation of a “people’s church”. The Oaxaca church was allied with Diocese of Chiapas
Roman Catholic Diocese of San Cristóbal de Las Casas
The Roman Catholic Diocese of San Cristóbal de Las Casas is a suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Tuxtla Gutiérrez. the bishop was Felipe Arizmendi Esquivel and the auxiliary bishop Enrique Díaz Díaz.-Ordinaries:*Juan de Arteaga y Avendaño *Bartolomé de las Casas, O.P...
under Bishop Samuel Ruiz
Samuel Ruiz
Samuel Ruiz García was a Mexican Roman Catholic prelate who served as bishop of the Diocese of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas, from 1959 until 2000. This zone in Mexico is characterized by its poverty and its indigenous population...
. The pastoral style of these Oaxacan and Chiapas churches came to be known as the “pastoral indígena” or indigenous pastoral and was focused explicitly on working with the most marginalized segments of society. He instituted a health clinic just outside the city of Tehuantepec basic hospital facilities and the promotion of natural medicine with the training of local healers called curandero
Curandero
A curandero or curandeiro is a traditional folk healer or shaman in Latin America, who is dedicated to curing physical or spiritual illnesses. The role of a curandero or curandera can also incorporate the roles of psychiatrist along with that of doctor and healer. Many curanderos use Catholic...
s. There is also an ecological center on the same site promoting recycling and organic fertilizer for the area’s agriculture.
During the 1980s, the diocese faced violence by regional power-holders, with two serious assassination attempts in the years before Lona’s retirement. The goal of these groups was to suppress further political activitism similar to the Zapatista uprising in Chiapas. Attacks against Lona and allies would continue into the 1990s. Liberation theology remained center of the diocese while Lona remained bishop although it lost power in the 1990s as the country moved towards neoliberal policies as well as the Church’s own gradual abandonment of liberation theology. Arturo Lona Reyes was one of the last of church leaders aligned with Liberation Theology.
The retirement of Bishop Arturo Lona Reyes drew about four thousand people, mostly native Zapotecs and Mixes. His work was recognized by the Archbishop of Oaxaca over 29 years in Tehuantepec. Lona Reyes retired from the official post but remained head of a religious group called the Iglesia Universal. The bishop stated that his “Opción por los Pobres” (Choice for the Poor) program which he heads would remain intact after he hands his resignation to the Vatican. In the “Church of the People” the offering consist of food and gifts brought by hundreds of indigenous. The bishop’s sermons often contained references to those “excluded from the system,” “community cooperatives” and “human rights.” The current bishop of Tehuantepec is Oscar Armando Campos Cantreras.
The rail line that had been the source of Tehuantepec’s boom in the early 20th century steadily declined over the remainder of the century. It and the rest in the country were privatized in 2001, but the 24 km nearest the city has become virtually abandoned with workstations dismantled and equipment sold off. This put a final end to the rail based economy of the city, especially in the Reoloteca neighborhood.
Since then, there have been several attempts to resurrect the line crossing the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The purpose of the project is to create a competitor to the overcrowded Panama Canal. It would be a rail line between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific at Tehuantepec, modernizing and extending existing rail lines. This type of project was initially proposed in 1980 again in 1997, 2006 and 2009. Versions of the project would have infrastructure built in Tehuantepec and in the nearby port of Salina Cruz. However, the project has not come to fruition with the main impediment being the large initial investment.
Despite an income of 100 million pesos a year, the municipality has had problems with bankruptcy and few works to show for the money in 2009. The municipal president was accused of embezzling the money, leaving the city with one of its worst crises in its history.
Economy
Twenty one percent of the working population is in agriculture and livestock. Principle crops include beans, corn, sorghumSorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
, sesame seed, melons, cucumbers, squash, peanuts and flowers. Livestock includes cattle, pigs and goats. The Union of Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus Region
Union of Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus Region
The Union of Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus Region , is a farmer's cooperative in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. It was established in 1982 to assist in production, marketing and distribution of locally produced coffee and other products....
, a cooperative founded in 1982, assists in production and distribution of the local products, notably coffee, under a fair trade
Fair trade
Fair trade is an organized social movement and market-based approach that aims to help producers in developing countries make better trading conditions and promote sustainability. The movement advocates the payment of a higher price to producers as well as higher social and environmental standards...
label.
Twenty five percent work in industry, mining and construction. Industry is limited to a water purification facility, a ice plant and one that processes calcium oxide (calidra). Limestone is mined as well. The most typical handcraft of the area is the traditional dress. There is also the production of ceramics especially for the kitchen as well as decorative items and toys.
Fifty one percent work in commerce, tourism and services. Most of the commerce serves local needs with some serving regional customers and tourists. There are two four-star hotels, one two star hotel and nine guesthouses. The municipality also has water parks and beaches.
Education
The municipality has twenty six pre-schools, thirty eight formal primary schools (ten of which are bilingual), five middle schools, eight distance education middle schools, seven high schools and a nursing school. The Universidad del Istmo opened in 2002 with a campus in Tehuantepec and Ixtepec .Archeology
The main archeological site is located on a large hill called GuiengolaGuiengola
Guiengola is a Zapotec archeological site located 14 km north of Tehuantepec, and 243 km southeast of Oaxaca city on Federal Highway 190. The visible ruins are located between a hill and a river, each carries the name of Guiengola. The name means “large stone” in the local variant of the...
, Gola, Gui’ngola or Guien-Gola. It and a nearby volcanic cone were fortified with walls, trenches and towers on the slopes. On the summit, terraces, bases, pyramids and temples were constructed with slabs of stone covered in stucco. The fortress city also had pens of deer and wild boar as well as artificial ponds with fish to act as food reserves. The area is filled with small ravines, which makes access more difficult. The fortifications served will in the 1490s, when the Aztecs laid siege to the city, but were unable to definitely conquer it after seven months.
The summit offers a panoramic view of a large part of the area as it extends over the plains. Many of the original walls and other structures remain more than 700 years after they were built. There are some underground chambers. At the top of the hill, there are small pyramids oriented east-west and a type of shrine with circular walls along with a principle residence. The main plaza contains a Mesoamerican ball court facing east. There are also two cylindrical structures which may have been astronomical observatories. The archeological zone is located about twelve km from the modern city along Federal Highway 190. From there a dirt road leads to the hill four km away.
Two reason the area have been studied well by archeologists is that the area is difficult to get to and the hot climate. Zapotec fortresses can be also found in Nexapa, Maxaltepec, Quievicuasa, Quiechapa and Quiecolani, which likely were controlled by Tehuantepec.