Temple of Confucius
Encyclopedia
Temple
A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out...
devoted to the memory of Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
and the sages and philosophers of Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
.
History
The largest and oldest Temple of ConfuciusTemple of Confucius, Qufu
The Temple of Confucius in Qufu, Shandong Province of China, is the "original", largest and most famous of the temples of Confucius in China and East Asia....
is found in Confucius's hometown, present-day Qufu
Qufu
Qufu is a city in southwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It is located at 35° 36′ northern latitude and 117° 02′ east, about south of the provincial capital Jinan and northeast of the prefecture seat at Jining...
in Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
Province. It was established in 479 BC
479 BC
Year 479 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vibulanus and Rutilus...
, one year after Confucius's death, at the order of the Duke Ai of the State of Lu
Lu (state)
The State of Lu, was a Zhou Dynasty ducal vassal state before and during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. Founded in the 10th century BC, its dukes used Ji as their family name. The first duke was Boqin |Qi]] and to the south by the powerful state of Chu...
, who commanded that the Confucian residence should be used to worship and offer sacrifice to Confucius. The temple was expanded repeatedly over a period of more than 2,000 years until it became the huge complex currently standing.
The development of state temples devoted to the cult of Confucius was an outcome of his gradual canonisation. In 195 BC, Han Gao Zu, founder of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(r. 206–195 BC), offered a sacrifice to the spirit of Confucius at his tomb in Qufu. Sacrifices to the spirit of Confucius and that of Yan Hui, his most prominent disciple, began in the Imperial University (Biyong) as early as 241
241
Year 241 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gordianus and Pompeianus...
.
In 454
454
Year 454 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aetius and Studius...
, the first state Confucian temple was built by the Liu Song dynasty of south China (420
420
Year 420 was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Theodosius and Constantius...
to 479
479
Year 479 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Zeno without colleague...
). In 489
489
Year 489 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probinus and Eusebius...
, the Northern Wei
Northern Wei
The Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
constructed a Confucian temple in the capital, the first outside of Qufu in the north. In 630, the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
decreed that schools in all provinces and counties should have a Confucian temple, as a result of which temples spread throughout China. Well-known Confucian shrines include the Confucian Temple in Jianshui
Jianshui
Jianshui County is a city in Honghe prefecture, Yunnan province, China. It was historic center of the province and remains an important transportation crossroad.-Geography:...
, the Confucian Temple in Xi'an
Xi'an
Xi'an is the capital of the Shaanxi province, and a sub-provincial city in the People's Republic of China. One of the oldest cities in China, with more than 3,100 years of history, the city was known as Chang'an before the Ming Dynasty...
(now the Forest of Steles), the Fuzi Miao in Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, and the Confucian Temple in Beijing, first built in 1302.
In addition to Confucian temples associated with the state cult of Confucius, there were also ancestral temples belonging to the Kong lineage, buildings commemorating Confucius's deeds throughout China, and private temples within academies.
Structure
Unlike Daoist or Buddhist temples, Confucian temples do not normally have images. In the early years of the temple in Qufu, it appears that the spirits of Confucius and his disciples were represented with wall paintings and clay or wooden statues. Official temples also contained images of Confucius himself. However, there was opposition to this practice, which was seen as imitative of Buddhist temples. It was also argued that the point of the imperial temples was to honour Confucius's teachings, not the man himself.
The lack of unity in likenesses in statues of Confucius first led Emperor Taizu
Taizu
Taizu is an imperial temple name typically used for those who founded a particular dynasty. It may refer to :*Shi Hu of Later Zhao *Emperor Taizu of Liao...
of the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
to decree that all new Confucian temples should contain only spirit tablets and no images. In 1530, it was decided that all existing images of Confucius should be replaced with spirit tablets in imperial temples in the capital and other bureaucratic locations, a rule still followed today. However, statues remained in temples operated by Confucius's family descendants, such as that in Qufu.
Worship
The state cult of Confucius centred upon offering sacrifices to Confucius's spirit in the Confucian temple.A dance known as the Eight-Row Dance, consisting of eight columns of eight dancers each, was also performed. Originally this was a Six-Row Dance, as performed for the lesser aristocracy, but in 1477 Confucius was allowed the imperial honour of the eight-row dance since he posthumously received the title of king.
In addition to worshipping Confucius, Confucian temples also honoured the "Four Correlates" (四配), the "Twelve Philosophers" (十二哲), and other disciples and Confucian scholars through history. The composition and number of figures worshipped changed and grew through time. Since temples were a statement of Confucian orthodoxy, the issue of which Confucians to enshrine was a controversial one.
By the Republican period
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
(20th century), there were a total of 162 figures worshipped. The Four Correlates include Yan Hui
Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)
Yan Hui was one of the disciples of Confucius.-Life:Yan Hui was a native of State of Lu, the favorite of his master, whose junior he was by thirty years, and whose disciple he became when he was quite a youth...
, Zeng Shen
Zengzi
Zengzi , born Zeng Shen , courtesy name Ziyu , was a Chinese philosopher and student of Confucius.He is credited with having authored a large portion of the Great Learning, including its foreword. Zengzi's disciples are believed to have been among the most important compilers of the Analects of...
, Kong Ji, and Mencius
Mencius
Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.-Life:Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng , Shandong province, only thirty kilometres ...
. The Twelve Philosophers are Min Zijian, Ran Boniu, Zhong Gong, Cai Wo, Zi-gong, Ran You, Zi-Lu, Zi-You, Zi-Xia, Zi-Zhang, You Ruo, and Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi
Zhū Xī or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China...
. A list of disciples of Confucius and their place in the Confucian temple can be found at Disciples of Confucius
Disciples of Confucius
Sima Qian has Confucius saying: The disciples who received my instructions, and could themselves comprehend them, were seventy-seven individuals. They were all scholars of extraordinary ability. The common saying is, that the disciples of the sage were three thousand, while among them there were...
.
Confucian temples outside mainland China
With the spread of Confucian learning throughout East Asia, Confucian temples were also built in VietnamVietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. Starting in the 18th century, some were even built in Europe and the Americas. At their height, there are estimated to have been over 3,000 Confucian temples in existence.
Taiwan
The first Confucian Temple in TaiwanTaiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
was the "Taiwan Confucian Temple
Taiwan Confucian Temple
The Taiwan Confucian Temple is a Confucian temple on Nanmen Road in Tainan City, Taiwan. -History:The Tainan Confucius Temple, also called the Scholarly Temple was built in 1665 when Cheng Ching, son of Koxinga approved of the proposal by Chief of General Staff Chen Yung-hua to construct the...
" (台灣孔廟), which was built in the period of Tungning Kingdom
Kingdom of Tungning
The Kingdom of Tungning was a government that ruled Taiwan between 1661 and 1683. A pro-Ming Dynasty state, it was founded by Koxinga after the Ming government in mainland China was replaced by the Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty...
(1661–1683). A more recent one, the Taipei Confucius Temple
Taipei Confucius Temple
The Taipei Confucius Temple is modeled after the original Confucius Temple in Qufu, Shandong Province of China. It is located on Dalong Street, Datong District, Taipei City, Taiwan. Among the Confucius temples in Taiwan, Taipei's is the only one adorned with southern Fujian-style ceramic...
(臺北市孔廟), was begun on Wenwu Street in Taipei
Taipei
Taipei City is the capital of the Republic of China and the central city of the largest metropolitan area of Taiwan. Situated at the northern tip of the island, Taipei is located on the Tamsui River, and is about 25 km southwest of Keelung, its port on the Pacific Ocean...
in 1879, torn down by Japanese in 1907, to make place for the Taipei First Girls' High School
Taipei First Girls' High School
Taipei First Girls' High School is a prestigious Taiwanese high school, located in Zhongzheng District within Taipei City, with only the top 1% of scorers on the Basic Competence Test for Junior High School Students receiving admission.- Overview :The school was founded in 1904 and named as...
, and reerected on Dalong Street from 1925 to 1939. The new temple was designed by Wang Yi-Shun, who also oversaws its construction. The design is an example for typical Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
temple style. Every year on September the 28th, the birthday of Confucius, city authorities hold here the Shidian Ceremony. In addition, there is a Confucian temple located in Zuoying District Kaohsiung
Kaohsiung
Kaohsiung is a city located in southwestern Taiwan, facing the Taiwan Strait on the west. Kaohsiung, officially named Kaohsiung City, is divided into thirty-eight districts. The city is one of five special municipalities of the Republic of China...
that was completed in 1974 in the Northern Song architectural style.
Vietnam
Tran
Tran or TRAN may refer to:* Tran, Bulgaria, a small town in Pernik Province, western Bulgaria* Trần , a Vietnamese surname spelled as Chan in Cantonese or Chen in Mandarin. This is one of the most populated surname in both Vietnam and China. As the descendent of Han Chinese, many immigrated to...
, Confucian temples began to spread throughout the country. Well known Confucian temples were built in Hue
Hue
Hue is one of the main properties of a color, defined technically , as "the degree to which a stimulus can be describedas similar to or different from stimuli that are described as red, green, blue, and yellow,"...
, Hoi An
Hoi An
Hội An , or rarely Faifo, is a city of Vietnam, on the coast of the South China Sea in the South Central Coast of Vietnam. It is located in Quang Nam province and is home to approximately 120,000 inhabitants...
, Hung Yen, Hai Duong
Hai Duong
Hải Dương is a city in Vietnam. It is the capital of Hai Duong province. Its name is Sino-Vietnamese for "ocean" .- Geography :Hai Duong city is bordered to the northeast by the Nam Sách District and Thanh Hà District...
, and Bac Ninh
Bac Ninh
Bắc Ninh is a city in Vietnam and capital of the Bac Ninh province. The city is the cultural, administrative, and commercial center of the province. The city area is 80.82 square km, with a population of 150,331 . In January, 2006, the town of Bac Ninh was upgraded to city...
.
Korea
Outside China, the largest number of Confucian temples is found in Korea. Temples were first built during the GoryeoGoryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
period (918-1392). In the time of Yi Seonggye (r. 1392-1398), it was decreed that Confucian temples should be built in all areas of the nation. Although Chinese models were followed, variations in layout and construction were common, such as the building of schools in front of temples. Korea also added its own scholars (the eighteen scholars of the East) to the Confucian pantheon.
Historically, Korea had a total of 362 temples devoted to the cult of Confucius. After World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
and the division of the country, those in the North were converted to other uses. However, many of the 232 temples in the South continued their activities (see Munmyo
Munmyo
Munmyo is Korea's primary Confucian shrine...
). In addition to temples devoted to the cult of Confucius, the Republic of Korea also has twelve Confucian family temples, two temples in private schools, and three libraries.
Japan
Confucian temples ( kōshi-byō) were also widely built in Japan, often in conjunction with Confucian schools. The most famous is the Yushima SeidoYushima Seido
, located in the Yushima neighbourhood of Bunkyō, Tokyo, Japan, was constructed as a Confucian temple in the Genroku era of the Edo period .-Tokugawa bureaucrat training center:...
, built in 1630 during the Edo period as a private school connected with the Neo-Confucianist scholar Hayashi Razan
Hayashi Razan
, also known as Hayashi Dōshun, was a Japanese Neo-Confucian philosopher, serving as a tutor and an advisor to the first four shoguns of the Tokugawa bakufu. He is also attributed with first listing the Three Views of Japan. Razan was the founder of the Hayashi clan of Confucian scholars.Razan was...
. Originally built in Shinobi-ga-oka in Ueno
Ueno, Tokyo
is a district in Tokyo's Taitō Ward, best known as the home of Ueno Station and Ueno Park. Ueno is also home to some of Tokyo's finest cultural sites, including the Tokyo National Museum, the National Museum of Western Art, and the National Science Museum, as well as a major public concert hall...
, it was later moved to Yushima (Ochanomizu
Ochanomizu
Ochanomizu is a neighborhood in Tokyo, Japan. It extends from the Yushima section of Bunkyo-ku to the Kanda section of Chiyoda-ku. Meiji University, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, and Juntendo University all have main campuses in the area. Ochanomizu Station on the Chūō Line is the transport...
) by the Tokugawa Shogunate and reopened as a school of Confucianism to spread the teachings of the Hayashi school.
Other well known Confucian temples are found in Nagasaki
Confucius Shrine
Confucius Shrine in Nagasaki, Japan is said to be the world's only Confucian shrine built outside China by Chinese hands. Even today the land on which it stands is Chinese territory and the land rights controlled by the Chinese Embassy in Tokyo.First built in 1893 by Chinese residents of Nagasaki...
, Bizen
Bizen, Okayama
is a city located in Okayama, Japan. The city is particularly famous for its Bizen-yaki pottery. It is also home to literary critic Hakuchō Masamune's birthplace, which is now a museum....
(Okayama prefecture
Okayama Prefecture
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshū island. The capital is the city of Okayama.- History :During the Meiji Restoration, the area of Okayama Prefecture was known as Bitchū Province, Bizen Province and Mimasaka Province.- Geography :...
), Taku
Taku, Saga
is a city located in Saga Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū, Japan.The city was founded on May 1, 1954 through the merger of several towns and villages.-Elementary Schools:*Hokubu Elementary School*Midori-ga-Oka Elementary School*Tobu Elementary School...
(Saga prefecture
Saga Prefecture
is located in the northwest part of the island of Kyūshū, Japan. It touches both the Sea of Japan and the Ariake Sea. The western part of the prefecture is a region famous for producing ceramics and porcelain, particularly the towns of Karatsu, Imari, and Arita...
), and Naha (Okinawa prefecture
Okinawa Prefecture
is one of Japan's southern prefectures. It consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over long, which extends southwest from Kyūshū to Taiwan. Okinawa's capital, Naha, is located in the southern part of Okinawa Island...
).
Indonesia
Li Tang (hall of worship)
]The Li Tang is a place to perform religious rituals and to learn the teachings of Confucius. Basically the function of Wen Miao and Li Tang are the same; the only difference perhaps is the architecture.-Boen Bio :...
or "halls of worship". The largest and oldest is the Boen Bio in Surabaya
Surabaya
Surabaya is Indonesia's second-largest city with a population of over 2.7 million , and the capital of the province of East Java...
, originally built in the city's Chinatown
Chinatown
A Chinatown is an ethnic enclave of overseas Chinese people, although it is often generalized to include various Southeast Asian people. Chinatowns exist throughout the world, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila,...
in 1883 and moved to a new site in 1907. There are reportedly more than 100 Confucianist halls of worship throughout Indonesia.
Malaysia
The first Confucian temple in Malaysia was built within a primary school known as Chung Hwa Confucian School (which has since split into SJK(C) Chung Hwa Confucian A, B and SMJK Chung Hwa ConfucianChung Hwa Confucian High School
Chung Hwa Confucian High School is a national-type secondary school located in Green Lane, Penang, Malaysia. The school is one of the 10 Chinese secondary schools in Penang and also has a good record of co-curriculum and public examination results.It is the only overseas Chinese School to be...
) in Penang
Penang
Penang is a state in Malaysia and the name of its constituent island, located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia by the Strait of Malacca. It is bordered by Kedah in the north and east, and Perak in the south. Penang is the second smallest Malaysian state in area after Perlis, and the...
, in the early 20th Century. The building of the school was initiated by the Qing dynasty ambassador to the British Straits Settlement at that time. In those days parents in Penang brought their children to this temple for prayer before they began their schooling. The children prayed for excellence in their studies.
There is also 2 Confucian schools in Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur is the capital and the second largest city in Malaysia by population. The city proper, making up an area of , has a population of 1.4 million as of 2010. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.2 million...
, namely SMJK Confucian and Confucian Private School, and a Confucian school in Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
where ceremonies in honour of Confucius are held annually.
Alternate names
In ChineseChinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, Confucian temples are known as Kong Miao (lit. The Temple of Confucius ). Alternative names are:
- 文庙/文廟 literally "Culture temple" or "Temple of literature"
- 圣庙/聖廟 literally "Sacred temple" or "Sage temple"
- 夫子/夫子廟 literally "Master temple", derived from the full Chinese name of Confucius (孔夫子)
Names in other countries of Asia are based on the Chinese names. For example:
- Korean: 孔子廟 (공자묘 Kongja myo), 文廟 (문묘 Munmyo)
- Japanese: 孔子廟 (Kōshi-byō), 聖廟 (Sei-byō)
- Vietnamese: Văn miếu (Chinese 文廟), Văn thánh miếu (Chinese 文聖廟)
- Indonesian: Boen Bio (Chinese 文廟)
Temples
- The Confucian Temple at QufuQufuQufu is a city in southwestern Shandong province, People's Republic of China. It is located at 35° 36′ northern latitude and 117° 02′ east, about south of the provincial capital Jinan and northeast of the prefecture seat at Jining...
- Beijing Confucian TempleBeijing Temple of ConfuciusThe Temple of Confucius at Beijing is the second largest Confucian Temple in China, after the one in Confucius' hometown of Qufu.The temple was built in 1302, and officials used it to pay their respects to Confucius until 1911. The compound was enlarged twice, during the Ming and Qing dynasties...
- Shanghai Wen Miao
- Văn Miếu of Hanoi
- Van Mieu Xich Dang, Vietnam
- MunmyoMunmyoMunmyo is Korea's primary Confucian shrine...
of Korea - Yushima SeidōYushima Seido, located in the Yushima neighbourhood of Bunkyō, Tokyo, Japan, was constructed as a Confucian temple in the Genroku era of the Edo period .-Tokugawa bureaucrat training center:...
, Tokyo, Japan - Taku SeibyōTaku SeibyoThe ' temple, located in Taku, Saga Prefecture is one of the oldest Confucian temples in Japan. Built in 1708, Taku Seibyō has been designated as an Important Cultural Property.-External links:* *...
, Taku, Saga Prefecture, Japan - Nagasaki Confucius ShrineConfucius ShrineConfucius Shrine in Nagasaki, Japan is said to be the world's only Confucian shrine built outside China by Chinese hands. Even today the land on which it stands is Chinese territory and the land rights controlled by the Chinese Embassy in Tokyo.First built in 1893 by Chinese residents of Nagasaki...
, Nagasaki, Japan - Taiwan Confucian TempleTaiwan Confucian TempleThe Taiwan Confucian Temple is a Confucian temple on Nanmen Road in Tainan City, Taiwan. -History:The Tainan Confucius Temple, also called the Scholarly Temple was built in 1665 when Cheng Ching, son of Koxinga approved of the proposal by Chief of General Staff Chen Yung-hua to construct the...
, Tainan - Li Tang (hall of worship)Li Tang (hall of worship)]The Li Tang is a place to perform religious rituals and to learn the teachings of Confucius. Basically the function of Wen Miao and Li Tang are the same; the only difference perhaps is the architecture.-Boen Bio :...
in Indonesia
External links
- Images of the Temple of Culture, with detailed history of Confucian temples
- Full Virtual Walk & Info on Confucius Temple, Beijing
- Asian Historical Architecture: Fuzimiao in Nanjing
- Asian Historical Architecture: Confucian temple in Suzhou
- The Confucian temple in Tainan
- Surabaya, with description of Boen Bio
- The Taipei Confucius Temple