The Canadian Crown and First Nations, Inuit and Métis
Encyclopedia
The association between the Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples of Canada
stretches back to the first interactions
between North American indigenous peoples
and Europe
an colonialists and, over centuries of interface, treaties
were established concerning the monarch and aboriginal tribes. Canada's First Nations
, Inuit
, and Métis
peoples now have a unique relationship with the reigning monarch and, like the Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi
in New Zealand
, generally view the affiliation as being not between them and the ever-changing Cabinet
, but instead with the continuous Crown of Canada, as embodied in the reigning sovereign. These agreements with the Crown are administered by Canadian Aboriginal law
and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development.
and the Canadian Crown is both statutory and traditional, the treaties being seen by the first peoples both as legal contracts and as perpetual and personal promises by successive reigning kings and queens to protect Aboriginal welfare, define their rights, and reconcile their sovereignty with that of the monarch in Canada. The agreements are formed with the Crown because the monarchy is thought to have inherent stability and continuity, as opposed to the transitory nature of populist whims that rule the political government, meaning the link between monarch and Aboriginals will theoretically last for "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."
The relationship has thus been described as mutual "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada" and "special," having a strong sense of "kinship" and possessing familial aspects. Constitutional scholars have observed that First Nations are "strongly supportive of the monarchy
," even if not necessarily regarding the monarch as supreme. The nature of the legal interaction between Canadian sovereign and First Nations has similarly not always been supported.
are those in Canada, which date to the beginning of the 18th century. Today, the main guide for relations between the monarchy and Canadian First Nations is King George III's
Royal Proclamation of 1763
; while not a treaty, it is regarded by First Nations as their Magna Carta
or "Indian Bill of Rights", binding on not only the British Crown
, but the Canadian one as well, as the document remains a part of the Canadian constitution
. The proclamation set parts of the King's North America
n realm aside for colonists and reserved others for the First Nations
, thereby affirming native title to their lands and making clear that, though under the sovereignty
of the Crown, the aboriginal bands were autonomous political units in a "nation-to-nation" association with non-native governments, with the monarch as the intermediary. This created not only a "constitutional and moral basis of alliance" between indigenous Canadians and the Canadian state as personified in the monarch, but also a fiduciary affiliation in which the Crown is constitutionally charged with providing certain guarantees to the First Nations, as affirmed in Sparrow v. The Queen
, meaning that the "honour of the Crown" is at stake in dealings between it and First Nations leaders.
Given the "divided" nature of the Crown
, the sovereign may be party to relations with aboriginal Canadians distinctly within a provincial jurisdiction. This has at times lead to a lack of clarity regarding which of the monarch's jurisdictions should administer his or her duties towards indigenous peoples.
s or other types of ceremony held to mark the anniversary of a particular treaty sometimes with the participation of the monarch, another member of the Canadian Royal Family, or one of the sovereign's representatives or simply an occasion mounted to coincide with the presence of a member of the Royal Family on a royal tour, Aboriginals having always been a part of such tours of Canada. Gifts have been frequently exchanged such as when the Sḵwx̱wú7mesh people's Capilano Indian Community Club of North Vancouver in 1953 gave the Duke of Edinburgh a walking stick
in the form of a totem pole
and Aboriginal titles have been bestowed upon royal and viceroyal figures since the earliest days of contact with the Crown: The Ojibwa
referred to George III as the Great Father and Queen Victoria was later dubbed as the Great White Mother. Queen Elizabeth II was named Mother of all People by the Salish nation
in 1959 and her son, Prince Charles, was in 1976 given by the Inuit the title of Attaniout Ikeneego, meaning Son of the Big Boss. Charles was further honoured in 1986, when Cree
and Ojibwa
students in Winnipeg
named Charles Leading Star, and again in 2001, during the Prince's first visit to Saskatchewan
, when he was named Pisimwa Kamiwohkitahpamikohk, or The Sun Looks at Him in a Good Way, by an elder in a ceremony at Wanuskewin Heritage Park
.
Since as early as 1710, Aboriginal leaders have met to discuss treaty business with Royal Family members or viceroys in private audience and many continue to use their connection to the Crown to further their political aims. The above mentioned pageants and celebrations have, for instance, been employed as a public platform on which to present complaints to the monarch or members of her family. It has been said that Aboriginal people in Canada cherish this ability to do this before the witness of national and international cameras; Innu leader Mary Pia Benuen said in 1997: "The way I see it, she is everybody's queen. It's nice for her to know who the Innu are and why we're fighting for our land claim and self-government all the time."
Explorers commissioned by French
and English
monarchs made contact with North American aboriginals in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These interactions were generally peaceful the agents of each sovereign seeking the Indians' alliance in wresting territories away from the other monarch and the partnerships were typically secured through treaties, the first signed in 1676. However, the English also used friendly gestures as a vehicle for establishing Crown dealings with aboriginal inhabitants, while simultaneously expanding their domain: as fur trade
rs and outposts of the Hudson's Bay Company
(HBC), a crown corporation founded in 1670, spread westward across the continent, they introduced the concept of a just, paternal monarch to "guide and animate their exertions," to inspire loyalty, and promote peaceful relations. They also brought with them images of the English monarch, such as the medal that bore the effigy
of King Charles II
(founder of the HBC) and which was presented to native chiefs as a mark of distinction; these medallions were passed down through the generations of the chiefs' descendants and those who wore them received particular honour and recognition at HBC posts.
The Great Peace of Montreal
was in 1701 signed by the Governor of New France
, representing King Louis XIV
, and the chiefs of 39 First Nations. Then, in 1710, aboriginal leaders were visiting personally with the British monarch; in that year, Queen Anne
held audience at St. James' Palace
with three Mohawk Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow of the Bear Clan (called Peter Brant, King of Maguas), Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row of the Wolf Clan (called King John of Canojaharie), and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row, or "Double Life", of the Wolf Clan (called King Hendrick
Peters) and one Mahicanin Chief Etow Oh Koam of the Turtle Clan (called Emperor of the Six Nations). The four, dubbed the Four Mohawk Kings, were received in London
as diplomats, being transported through the streets in royal carriages and visiting the Tower of London
and St. Paul's Cathedral. But, their business was to request military aid for defence against the French, as well as missionaries for spiritual guidance. The latter request was passed by Anne to the Archbishop of Canterbury
, Thomas Tenison
, and a chapel was eventually built in 1711 at Fort Hunter, near present day Johnstown, New York
, along with the gift of a reed organ and a set of silver chalice
s in 1712.
Both British and French monarchs viewed their lands in North America as being held by them in totality, including those occupied by First Nations. Typically, the treaties established delineations between territory reserved for colonial settlement and that distinctly for aboriginal use. The French kings, though they did not admit claims by aboriginals to lands in New France, granted the natives reserves for their exclusive use; for instance, from 1716 onwards, land north and west of the manorials
on the Saint Lawrence River
were designated as the pays d'enhaut (upper country), or "Indian country", and were forbidden to settlement and clearing of land without the expressed authorisation of the King. The same was done by the kings of Great Britain; for example, the Treaty of 1725, establishing a relationship between King George III and the "Maeganumbe... tribes Inhabiting His Majesty's Territories," acknowledged the King's title to the provinces of Nova Scotia
and Acadia
in exchange for the guarantee that the indigenous people "not be molested in their persons... by His Majesty's subjects."
The sovereigns also sought alliances with the First Nations; the Iroquois
siding with Georges II and III and the Algonquin with Louis XIV and XV. These arrangements left questions about the treatment of aboriginals in the French territories once the latter were ceded in 1760 to George III. Article 40 of the Capitulation of Montreal
, signed on 8 September 1760, inferred that First Nations peoples who had been subjects of King Louis XV
would then become the same of King George: "The Savages or Indian allies of his most Christian Majesty, shall be maintained in the Lands they inhabit; if they chose to remain there; they shall not be molested on any pretence whatsoever, for having carried arms, and served his most Christian Majesty; they shall have, as well as the French, liberty of religion, and shall keep their missionaries..." Yet, two days before, the Algonquin, along with the Hurons of Lorette and eight other tribes, had already ratified a treaty at Fort Lévis
, making them allied with, and subjects of, the British king, who instructed General the Lord Amherst
to treat the First Nations "upon the same principals of humanity and proper indulgence" as the French, and to "cultivate the best possible harmony and Friendship with the Chiefs of the Indian Tribes." The retention of civil code
in Quebec, though, caused the relations between the Crown and First Nations in that jurisdiction to be viewed as dissimilar to those that existed in the other Canadian colonies.
In 1763, George III issued a Royal Proclamation
that acknowledged the First Nations as autonomous political units and affirmed their title to their lands; it became the main document governing the parameters of the relationship between the sovereign and his aboriginal subjects in North America. The King thereafter ordered Sir William Johnson to make the proclamation known to the aboriginal nations under the King's sovereignty and, by 1766, its provisions were already put into practical use: In that year, the Imperial Privy Council endorsed a grant of 20000 acres (80.9 km²) to Joseph Marie Philibot at a location of his choosing, but Philibot's request for land on the Restigouche River
was denied by the Governor of Quebec on the grounds that "the lands so prayed to be assigned are, or are claimed to be, the property of the Indians and as such by His Majesty's express command as set forth in his proclamation in 1763, not within their power to grant." In the prelude to the American Revolution
, native leader Joseph Brant
took the King up on this offer of protection and voyaged to London between 1775 and 1776 to meet with George III in person and discuss the aggressive expansionist policies of the American colonists.
During the course of the American Revolution, First Nations assisted King George III's North American forces, who ultimately lost the conflict. As a result of the Treaty of Paris
, signed in 1783 between King George and the American Congress of the Confederation
, British North America was divided into the sovereign United States
(US) and the still British Canadas
, creating a new international border through some of those lands that had been set apart by the Crown for First Nations and completely immersing others within the new republic. As a result, some aboriginal tribes felt betrayed by the King and their service to the monarch was detailed in oratories that called on the Crown to keep its promises, especially after nations that had allied themselves with the British sovereign were driven from their lands by Americans. New treaties were drafted and those indigenous nations that had lost their territories in the United States, or simply wished to not live under the US government, were granted new land in Canada by the King.
The Mohawk Nation
was one such group, which abandoned its Mohawk Valley
territory, in present day New York State, after Americans destroyed the natives' settlement, including the chapel donated by Queen Anne following the visit to London of the Four Mohawk Kings. As compensation, George III promised land in Canada to the Six Nations and, in 1784, some Mohawks settled in what is now the Bay of Quinte
and the Grand River Valley
, where North America's only two Chapels Royal
Christ Church Royal Chapel of the Mohawks
and Her Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks
were built to symbolise the connection between the Mohawk people and the Crown. Thereafter, the treaties with aboriginals across southern Ontario were dubbed the Covenant Chain
and ensured the preservation of First Nations' rights not provided elsewhere in the Americas.
This treatment encouraged the loyalty of the aboriginal peoples to the sovereign and, as allies of the King, they aided in defending his North American territories, especially during the War of 1812
.
In 1860, during one of the first true royal tours of Canada
, First Nations put on displays, expressed their loyalty to Queen Victoria
and presented concerns about misconduct on the part of the Indian Department to the Queen's son, Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales
, when he was in Upper Canada
. In that same year, Nahnebahwequay of the Ojibwa
secured an audience with the Queen. When Governor General the Marquess of Lorne
and his wife, Princess Louise
, a daughter of Queen Victoria, visited British Columbia
in 1882, they were greeted upon arrival in New Westminster by a floatilla of local Aboriginals in canoes who sang songs of welcome before the royal couple landed and proceeded through a ceremonial arch built by Aboriginals, which was hung with a banner reading "Clahowya Queenastenass", Chinookian
for "Welcome Queen." The following day, the Duke and Duchess gave their presence to an event attended by thousands of First Nations people and at least 40 chiefs. One presented the Princess with baskets, a bracelet, and a ring of Aboriginal make and Louise said in response that, when she returned to the United Kingdom, she would show these items to the Queen.
Once the Dominion Crown purchased what remained of Rupert's Land
from the Hudson's Bay Company and colonial settlement expanded westwards, more treaties were signed between 1871 and 1921, wherein the Crown brokered land exchanges that granted the aboriginal societies reserves and other compensation, such as livestock, ammunition, education, health care, and certain rights to hunt and fish. This situation under the Crown was regarded by the First Nations as better than that which had befallen their brethren in the United States. The treaties did not ensure peace: as evidenced by the North-West Rebellion
of 1885, sparked by Métis people's
concerns over their survival and discontent on the part of Cree
people over perceived unfairness in the treaties signed with Queen Victoria.
and Queen Elizabeth
an event intended to express the new independence of Canada and its monarchy First Nations journeyed to city centres like Regina, Saskatchewan
, and Calgary
, Alberta
, to meet with the King and present gifts and other displays of loyalty. In the course of the Second World War
that followed soon after George's tour, more than 3,000 aboriginal and Métis Canadians fought for the Canadian Crown and country, some receiving personal recognition from the King, such as Tommy Prince
, who was presented with the Military Medal
and, on behalf of the President of the United States
, the Silver Star
by the King at Buckingham Palace.
Squamish Nation Chief Joe Mathias was amongst the Canadian dignitaries who were invited to attend the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London in 1953.
When George's daughter, Queen Elizabeth II, toured Canada twenty years later, similar interactions took place: In Labrador
, Elizabeth was greeted by the Chief of the Montagnais and given a pair of beaded moose-hide jackets; at Gaspé, Quebec
, the Queen and her husband were presented with deerskin coats by two local aboriginal people; and in Ottawa, a man from the Kahnawake Mohawk Territory passed to officials a 200 year old wampum
as a gift for Elizabeth. It was during that journey that the Queen became the first member of the Royal Family to meet with Inuit representatives, doing so in Stratford, Ontario
, and the royal train stopped in Brantford, Ontario
, so that the Queen could sign the Six Nations Queen Anne Bible in the presence of Six Nations leaders. Across the prairies
, First Nations were present on the welcoming platforms in numerous cities and towns, and at the Calgary Stampede
, more than 300 Blackfoot
, Tsuu T'ina
, and Nakoda
performed a war dance
and erected approximately 30 teepees, amongst which the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh walked, meeting with various chiefs. In Nanaimo, British Columbia
, a longer meeting took place between Elizabeth and the Salish
, wherein the latter conferred on the former the title of Mother of all People, and, following a dance of welcome, the Queen and her consort spent 45 minutes 20 more than allotted touring a replica First Nations village and chatting with some 200 people.
In 1970, Elizabeth II's presence at The Pas, Manitoba
, provided an opportunity for the Opaskwayak Cree Nation
to publicly express their perceptions of injustice meted out by the government; three years later, the Queen assured native chiefs in Alberta that "her government recognized the importance of full compliance with the spirit and intent of treaties".
During a royal tour by the Queen in 1973, Harold Cardinal
delivered a politically charged speech to the monarch and the Queen responded; the whole exchange having been pre-approved between the two.
Still, at the same time, aboriginal people were not always granted the personal time with the Queen that they desired; the meetings with First Nations and Inuit tended to be purely ceremonial affairs wherein treaty issues were not officially discussed. For instance, when Queen Elizabeth arrived in Stoney Creek, Ontario
, five chiefs in full feathered headdress
and a cortege of 20 braves and their consorts came to present to her a letter outlining their grievances, but were prevented by officials from meeting with the sovereign.
and Cree chief Ralph Steinhauer
, held audience with the monarch there in 1976.
In the prelude to the patriation
of the Canadian constitution
in 1982, First Nations leaders campaigned for and against the proposed move, many asserting that the federal ministers of the Crown
at that time had no right to advise the Queen that she sever, without consent from the First Nations, the treaty rights she and her ancestors had long granted to aboriginal Canadians. Worrying to them was the fact that their relationship with the monarch had, over the preceding century, come to be interpreted by Indian Affairs officials as one of subordination to the government a misreading on the part of non-aboriginals of the terms Great White Mother and her Indian Children. Indeed, First Nations representatives were locked out of constitutional conferences in the late 1970s, leading the National Indian Brotherhood
(NIB) to make plans to petition the Queen directly. The Liberal
Cabinet at the time, not wishing to be embarrassed by having the monarch intervene, extended to the NIB an invitation to talks at the ministerial level, though not the first ministers' meetings. But the invite came just before the election in May 1979
, which put the Progressive Conservative Party
into Cabinet and the new ministers of the Crown decided to advise the Queen not to meet with the NIB delegation, while telling the NIB that the Queen had no power. The ministers of the Crown eventually reversed their position and offered a similar invitation to constitutional talks, but the NIB party, consisting of over 200 people, had already departed for London.
No meeting with the Queen took place, but the indigenous Canadians' position was confirmed by Master of the Rolls
the Lord Denning
, who ruled that the relationship was indeed one between sovereign and First Nations directly, clarifying further that, since the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931, the Canadian Crown had come to be distinct from the British Crown
, though the two were still held by the same monarch, leaving the treaties sound. Upon their return to Canada, the NIB was granted access to first ministers' meetings and the ability to address the premiers.
Some 15 years later, Governor General-in-Council
, per the Inquiry Act and on the advice of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney
, established the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
to address a number of concerns surrounding the relationship between aboriginal and non-aboriginal people in Canada. After 178 days of public hearings, visits by 96 communities, and numerous reviews and reports, the central conclusion reached was that "the main policy direction, pursued for more than 150 years, first by colonial then by Canadian governments, has been wrong," focusing on the previous attempts at cultural assimilation
. It was recommended that the nation-to-nation relationship of mutual respect be re-established between the Crown and First Nations, specifically calling for the monarch to "announce the establishment of a new era of respect for the treaties" and renew the treaty process through the issuance of a new royal proclamation as supplement to the Royal Proclamation of 1763. It was argued by Tony Hall, a professor of Native American studies at the University of Lethbridge
, that the friendly relations between monarch and indigenous Canadians must continue as a means to exercise Canadian sovereignty
.
In 1994, while the Queen and her then Prime Minister
, Jean Chrétien
, were attending an aboriginal cultural festival in Yellowknife, the Dene
community of the Northwest Territories
presented a list of grievances over stalled land claim negotiations. Similarly, the Queen and Chrétien visited in 1997 the community of Sheshatshiu
in Newfoundland and Labrador
, where the Innu
people of Quebec and Labrador
presented a letter of grievance over stagnant land claim talks. On both occasions, instead of giving the documents to the Prime Minister, as he was not party to the treaty agreements, they were handed by the Chiefs to the Queen, who, after speaking with the them, then passed the list and letter to Chrétien for he and the other ministers of the Crown
to address and advise
the Queen or her viceroy
on how to proceed.
Still, as recently as 2005, First Nations were complaining that, during the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Alberta and Saskatchewan that year, they were relegated to a merely ceremonial role, being denied by federal and provincial ministers any access to the Queen in private audience. First Nations leaders have also raised concerns about what they see as a crumbling relationship between their people and the Crown, fuelled by the failure of the federal and provincial cabinets to resolve land claim disputes, as well as a perceived intervention of the Crown into aboriginal affairs. Formal relations have also not yet been founded between the monarchy and a number of First Nations around Canada; such as those in British Columbia
who are still engaged in the process of treaty making
.
Portraits of the Four Mohawk Kings that had been commissioned while the aboriginal leaders were in London had then hung at Kensington Palace
for nearly 270 years, until Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 donated them to the Canadian Collection at the National Archives of Canada
, unveiling them personally in Ottawa. That same year, the Queen's son, Prince Charles, Prince of Wales
, visited Alberta to attend celebrations marking the 100th anniversary of the signing of Treaty 7
, when he was made a Kainai
chieftain, and, as a bicentennial gift in 1984, Elizabeth II gave to the Christ Church Royal Chapel
of the Mohawks a silver chalice to replace that which was lost from the 1712 Queen Anne set during the American Revolution
. In 2003, Elizabeth's other son, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
, opened the Regina, Saskatchewan
, campus of the First Nations University of Canada
, where the Queen made her first stop during her 2005 tour of Saskatchewan and Alberta and presented the university with a commemorative granite plaque.
A similar scene took place at British Columbia's Government House
, when in 2009 Shawn Atleo
, the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations
, presented Prince Charles, Prince of Wales
, with a letter of complaint about the Crown's fulfillment of its treaty duties, and requested a meeting with the Queen.
Prince Charles in 2009 added another dimension to the relationship between the Crown and First Nations when, in a speech in Vancouver
, he drew a connection between his own personal interests and concerns in environmentalism
and the cultural practices and traditions of Canada's First Nations.
On 4 July 2010, Queen Elizabeth II presented to Her Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks
and Christ Church Royal Chapel
sets of handbell
s, to symbolise the councils and treaties between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Crown.
As the representatives in Canada and the provinces of the reigning monarch, governors, both general and lieutenant, have been closely associated with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. This dates back to the colonial era, when the sovereign did not travel from Europe to Canada, and so dealt with aboriginal societies through his viceroy
. After the American Revolution, a tradition was initiated in eastern Canada of appealing to the viceregal representatives for redress of grievances, and later, after returning from a cross-country tour in 1901, during which he met with First Nations in the Yukon
, Governor General
The Earl of Minto
urged his ministers to redress the wrongs he had witnessed in the north and to preserve native heritage and folklore.
Federal and provincial viceroys also met with First Nations leaders for more ceremonial occasions, such as when in 1867 Canada's first Governor General, The Viscount Monk, met with a native chief, in full feathers, amongst some of the first guests at Rideau Hall
. The Marguess of Lansdowne
smoked a calumet
with aboriginal people in the Prairies
, The Marquess of Lorne
was there named Great Brother-in-Law, and The Lord Tweedsmuir
was honoured by the Kainai Nation
through being made a chief of the Blood Indians and met with Grey Owl
in Saskatchewan. The Earl Alexander of Tunis
was presented with a totem pole
by Kwakiutl
carver Mungo Martin
, which Alexander erected on the grounds of Rideau Hall
, where it stands today with the inukshuk
by artist Kananginak Pootoogook that was commissioned in 1997 by Governor General Roméo LeBlanc
to commemorate the second National Aboriginal Day
. Governor General The Viscount Byng of Vimy
undertook a far-reaching tour of the north in 1925, during which the he met with First Nations and heard their grievances at Fort Providence
and Fort Simpson
. Later, Governor General Edward Schreyer
was in 1984 made an honorary member of the Kainai Chieftainship, as was one his viceregal successors, Adrienne Clarkson
, who was made such on 23 July 2005, along with being adopted into the Blood Tribe with the name Grandmother of Many Nations. Clarkson was an avid supporter of Canada's north and Inuit culture, employing students from Nunavut Arctic College
to assist in designing the Clarkson Cup
and creating the Governor General's Northern Medal
.
Five persons from First Nations have been appointed as the monarch's representative, all in the provincial spheres. Ralph Steinhauer
was the first, having been made Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
on 2 July 1974; Steinhauer was from the Cree
nation. W. Yvon Dumont
was of Métis
heritage and served as Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba
between 1993 and 1999. The first Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
of aboriginal heritage was James Bartleman, who was appointed to the position on 7 March 2002. A member of the Mnjikaning First Nation, Bartlemen listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities, and, during his time in the Queen's service, launched several initiatives to promote literacy and social bridge building, travelling to remote native communities in northern Ontario, pairing native and non-native schools, and creating the Lieutenant Governor's Book Program, which collected 1.4 million books that were flown into the province's north to stock shelves of First Nations community libraries. On 1 October 2007, Steven Point
, from the Skowkale First Nation
, was installed as Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia
, and Graydon Nicholas
, born on the Tobique Indian Reserve
, was made Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
on 30 September 2009.
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
stretches back to the first interactions
Timeline of colonization of North America
This is a chronology of the colonization of North America, with founding dates of European settlements. See also European colonization of the Americas.-Before Columbus:* 6th Century: Brendan The Navigator possibly reaches North America.* 874: Norse reach Iceland...
between North American indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
and Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an colonialists and, over centuries of interface, treaties
Treaty
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
were established concerning the monarch and aboriginal tribes. Canada's First Nations
First Nations
First Nations is a term that collectively refers to various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The...
, Inuit
Inuit
The Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada , Denmark , Russia and the United States . Inuit means “the people” in the Inuktitut language...
, and Métis
Métis people (Canada)
The Métis are one of the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who trace their descent to mixed First Nations parentage. The term was historically a catch-all describing the offspring of any such union, but within generations the culture syncretised into what is today a distinct aboriginal group, with...
peoples now have a unique relationship with the reigning monarch and, like the Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi
Treaty of Waitangi
The Treaty of Waitangi is a treaty first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and various Māori chiefs from the North Island of New Zealand....
in New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, generally view the affiliation as being not between them and the ever-changing Cabinet
Cabinet of Canada
The Cabinet of Canada is a body of ministers of the Crown that, along with the Canadian monarch, and within the tenets of the Westminster system, forms the government of Canada...
, but instead with the continuous Crown of Canada, as embodied in the reigning sovereign. These agreements with the Crown are administered by Canadian Aboriginal law
Canadian Aboriginal law
Canadian Aboriginal law is the body of Canadian law that concerns a variety of issues related to aboriginal peoples in Canada. Aboriginal law provides certain rights to land and traditional practices...
and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development.
Relations
The association between Canada's AboriginalsAboriginal peoples in Canada
Aboriginal peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis. The descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have fallen into disuse in Canada and are commonly considered pejorative....
and the Canadian Crown is both statutory and traditional, the treaties being seen by the first peoples both as legal contracts and as perpetual and personal promises by successive reigning kings and queens to protect Aboriginal welfare, define their rights, and reconcile their sovereignty with that of the monarch in Canada. The agreements are formed with the Crown because the monarchy is thought to have inherent stability and continuity, as opposed to the transitory nature of populist whims that rule the political government, meaning the link between monarch and Aboriginals will theoretically last for "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."
The relationship has thus been described as mutual "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada" and "special," having a strong sense of "kinship" and possessing familial aspects. Constitutional scholars have observed that First Nations are "strongly supportive of the monarchy
Monarchism in Canada
Canadian monarchism is the appreciation amongst Canadians for, and thus also advocacy for the retention of, their distinct system of constitutional monarchy, countering anti-monarchical reform as being generally revisionist, idealistic, and ultimately impracticable...
," even if not necessarily regarding the monarch as supreme. The nature of the legal interaction between Canadian sovereign and First Nations has similarly not always been supported.
Definition
While treaties were signed between European monarchs and First Nations in North America as far back as 1676, the only ones that survived the American RevolutionAmerican Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
are those in Canada, which date to the beginning of the 18th century. Today, the main guide for relations between the monarchy and Canadian First Nations is King George III's
George III of the United Kingdom
George III was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death...
Royal Proclamation of 1763
Royal Proclamation of 1763
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War...
; while not a treaty, it is regarded by First Nations as their Magna Carta
Magna Carta
Magna Carta is an English charter, originally issued in the year 1215 and reissued later in the 13th century in modified versions, which included the most direct challenges to the monarch's authority to date. The charter first passed into law in 1225...
or "Indian Bill of Rights", binding on not only the British Crown
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The monarchy of the United Kingdom is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties...
, but the Canadian one as well, as the document remains a part of the Canadian constitution
Constitution of Canada
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada; the country's constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It outlines Canada's system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada...
. The proclamation set parts of the King's North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
n realm aside for colonists and reserved others for the First Nations
Indian reserve
In Canada, an Indian reserve is specified by the Indian Act as a "tract of land, the legal title to which is vested in Her Majesty, that has been set apart by Her Majesty for the use and benefit of a band." The Act also specifies that land reserved for the use and benefit of a band which is not...
, thereby affirming native title to their lands and making clear that, though under the sovereignty
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
of the Crown, the aboriginal bands were autonomous political units in a "nation-to-nation" association with non-native governments, with the monarch as the intermediary. This created not only a "constitutional and moral basis of alliance" between indigenous Canadians and the Canadian state as personified in the monarch, but also a fiduciary affiliation in which the Crown is constitutionally charged with providing certain guarantees to the First Nations, as affirmed in Sparrow v. The Queen
R. v. Sparrow
R. v. Sparrow, [1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075 was an important decision of the Supreme Court of Canada concerning the application of Aboriginal rights under section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982...
, meaning that the "honour of the Crown" is at stake in dealings between it and First Nations leaders.
Given the "divided" nature of the Crown
Monarchy in the Canadian provinces
The monarchy of Canada forms the core of each Canadian provincial jurisdiction's Westminster-style parliamentary democracy, being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government in each province...
, the sovereign may be party to relations with aboriginal Canadians distinctly within a provincial jurisdiction. This has at times lead to a lack of clarity regarding which of the monarch's jurisdictions should administer his or her duties towards indigenous peoples.
Expressions
From time to time, the link between crown and Aboriginal peoples will be symbolically expressed, through pow-wowPow-wow
A pow-wow is a gathering of North America's Native people. The word derives from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning "spiritual leader". A modern pow-wow is a specific type of event where both Native American and non-Native American people meet to dance, sing, socialize, and honor American...
s or other types of ceremony held to mark the anniversary of a particular treaty sometimes with the participation of the monarch, another member of the Canadian Royal Family, or one of the sovereign's representatives or simply an occasion mounted to coincide with the presence of a member of the Royal Family on a royal tour, Aboriginals having always been a part of such tours of Canada. Gifts have been frequently exchanged such as when the Sḵwx̱wú7mesh people's Capilano Indian Community Club of North Vancouver in 1953 gave the Duke of Edinburgh a walking stick
Walking stick
A walking stick is a device used by many people to facilitate balancing while walking.Walking sticks come in many shapes and sizes, and can be sought by collectors. Some kinds of walking stick may be used by people with disabilities as a crutch...
in the form of a totem pole
Totem pole
Totem poles are monumental sculptures carved from large trees, mostly Western Red Cedar, by cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America...
and Aboriginal titles have been bestowed upon royal and viceroyal figures since the earliest days of contact with the Crown: The Ojibwa
Ojibwa
The Ojibwe or Chippewa are among the largest groups of Native Americans–First Nations north of Mexico. They are divided between Canada and the United States. In Canada, they are the third-largest population among First Nations, surpassed only by Cree and Inuit...
referred to George III as the Great Father and Queen Victoria was later dubbed as the Great White Mother. Queen Elizabeth II was named Mother of all People by the Salish nation
Bitterroot Salish (tribe)
The Bitterroot Salish are one of three tribes of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation in Montana. The Flathead Reservation is home to the Kootenai and Pend d'Oreilles tribes also.-Language:...
in 1959 and her son, Prince Charles, was in 1976 given by the Inuit the title of Attaniout Ikeneego, meaning Son of the Big Boss. Charles was further honoured in 1986, when Cree
Cree
The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations / Native Americans in North America, with 200,000 members living in Canada. In Canada, the major proportion of Cree live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories, although...
and Ojibwa
Ojibwa
The Ojibwe or Chippewa are among the largest groups of Native Americans–First Nations north of Mexico. They are divided between Canada and the United States. In Canada, they are the third-largest population among First Nations, surpassed only by Cree and Inuit...
students in Winnipeg
Winnipeg
Winnipeg is the capital and largest city of Manitoba, Canada, and is the primary municipality of the Winnipeg Capital Region, with more than half of Manitoba's population. It is located near the longitudinal centre of North America, at the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers .The name...
named Charles Leading Star, and again in 2001, during the Prince's first visit to Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of . Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota....
, when he was named Pisimwa Kamiwohkitahpamikohk, or The Sun Looks at Him in a Good Way, by an elder in a ceremony at Wanuskewin Heritage Park
Wanuskewin Heritage Park
Wanuskewin Heritage Park is a non-profit internationally-recognized award-winning interpretive centre that reflects First Nations culture, history, and values...
.
French and British crowns
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
monarchs made contact with North American aboriginals in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These interactions were generally peaceful the agents of each sovereign seeking the Indians' alliance in wresting territories away from the other monarch and the partnerships were typically secured through treaties, the first signed in 1676. However, the English also used friendly gestures as a vehicle for establishing Crown dealings with aboriginal inhabitants, while simultaneously expanding their domain: as fur trade
Fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of world market for in the early modern period furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the most valued...
rs and outposts of the Hudson's Bay Company
Hudson's Bay Company
The Hudson's Bay Company , abbreviated HBC, or "The Bay" is the oldest commercial corporation in North America and one of the oldest in the world. A fur trading business for much of its existence, today Hudson's Bay Company owns and operates retail stores throughout Canada...
(HBC), a crown corporation founded in 1670, spread westward across the continent, they introduced the concept of a just, paternal monarch to "guide and animate their exertions," to inspire loyalty, and promote peaceful relations. They also brought with them images of the English monarch, such as the medal that bore the effigy
Effigy
An effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
of King Charles II
Charles II of England
Charles II was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland.Charles II's father, King Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War...
(founder of the HBC) and which was presented to native chiefs as a mark of distinction; these medallions were passed down through the generations of the chiefs' descendants and those who wore them received particular honour and recognition at HBC posts.
The Great Peace of Montreal
Great Peace of Montreal
The Great Peace of Montreal was a peace treaty between New France and 40 First Nations of North America. It was signed on August 4, 1701, by Louis-Hector de Callière, governor of New France, and 1300 representatives of 40 aboriginal nations of the North East of North America...
was in 1701 signed by the Governor of New France
Governor of New France
The Governor of New France was the viceroy of the King of France in North America. A French noble, he was appointed to govern the colonies of New France, which included Canada, Acadia and Louisiana. The residence of the Governor was at the Château St-Louis in the capital of Quebec City...
, representing King Louis XIV
Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV , known as Louis the Great or the Sun King , was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of four and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days...
, and the chiefs of 39 First Nations. Then, in 1710, aboriginal leaders were visiting personally with the British monarch; in that year, Queen Anne
Anne of Great Britain
Anne ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Act of Union, two of her realms, England and Scotland, were united as a single sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain.Anne's Catholic father, James II and VII, was deposed during the...
held audience at St. James' Palace
St. James's Palace
St. James's Palace is one of London's oldest palaces. It is situated in Pall Mall, just north of St. James's Park. Although no sovereign has resided there for almost two centuries, it has remained the official residence of the Sovereign and the most senior royal palace in the UK...
with three Mohawk Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow of the Bear Clan (called Peter Brant, King of Maguas), Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row of the Wolf Clan (called King John of Canojaharie), and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row, or "Double Life", of the Wolf Clan (called King Hendrick
King Hendrick
Hendrick Theyanoguin , whose name had several spelling variations, was an important Mohawk leader and member of the Bear Clan who was located at Canajoharie or the Upper Mohawk Castle in colonial New York.. He was a speaker for the Mohawk Council...
Peters) and one Mahicanin Chief Etow Oh Koam of the Turtle Clan (called Emperor of the Six Nations). The four, dubbed the Four Mohawk Kings, were received in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
as diplomats, being transported through the streets in royal carriages and visiting the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
and St. Paul's Cathedral. But, their business was to request military aid for defence against the French, as well as missionaries for spiritual guidance. The latter request was passed by Anne to the Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
, Thomas Tenison
Thomas Tenison
Thomas Tenison was an English church leader, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1694 until his death. During his primacy, he crowned two British monarchs.-Life:...
, and a chapel was eventually built in 1711 at Fort Hunter, near present day Johnstown, New York
Johnstown (town), New York
Johnstown is a town located in Fulton County, New York, United States. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the town had a population of 7,166. The name of the town is from landowner William Johnson....
, along with the gift of a reed organ and a set of silver chalice
Chalice (cup)
A chalice is a goblet or footed cup intended to hold a drink. In general religious terms, it is intended for drinking during a ceremony.-Christian:...
s in 1712.
Both British and French monarchs viewed their lands in North America as being held by them in totality, including those occupied by First Nations. Typically, the treaties established delineations between territory reserved for colonial settlement and that distinctly for aboriginal use. The French kings, though they did not admit claims by aboriginals to lands in New France, granted the natives reserves for their exclusive use; for instance, from 1716 onwards, land north and west of the manorials
Manorialism
Manorialism, an essential element of feudal society, was the organizing principle of rural economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire, was widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market...
on the Saint Lawrence River
Saint Lawrence River
The Saint Lawrence is a large river flowing approximately from southwest to northeast in the middle latitudes of North America, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the primary drainage conveyor of the Great Lakes Basin...
were designated as the pays d'enhaut (upper country), or "Indian country", and were forbidden to settlement and clearing of land without the expressed authorisation of the King. The same was done by the kings of Great Britain; for example, the Treaty of 1725, establishing a relationship between King George III and the "Maeganumbe... tribes Inhabiting His Majesty's Territories," acknowledged the King's title to the provinces of Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
and Acadia
Acadia
Acadia was the name given to lands in a portion of the French colonial empire of New France, in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day Maine. At the end of the 16th century, France claimed territory stretching as far south as...
in exchange for the guarantee that the indigenous people "not be molested in their persons... by His Majesty's subjects."
The sovereigns also sought alliances with the First Nations; the Iroquois
Iroquois
The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...
siding with Georges II and III and the Algonquin with Louis XIV and XV. These arrangements left questions about the treatment of aboriginals in the French territories once the latter were ceded in 1760 to George III. Article 40 of the Capitulation of Montreal
Montreal
Montreal is a city in Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec, the second-largest city in Canada and the seventh largest in North America...
, signed on 8 September 1760, inferred that First Nations peoples who had been subjects of King Louis XV
Louis XV of France
Louis XV was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and of Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather at the age of five, his first cousin Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, served as Regent of the kingdom until Louis's majority in 1723...
would then become the same of King George: "The Savages or Indian allies of his most Christian Majesty, shall be maintained in the Lands they inhabit; if they chose to remain there; they shall not be molested on any pretence whatsoever, for having carried arms, and served his most Christian Majesty; they shall have, as well as the French, liberty of religion, and shall keep their missionaries..." Yet, two days before, the Algonquin, along with the Hurons of Lorette and eight other tribes, had already ratified a treaty at Fort Lévis
Fort Lévis
Fort Lévis, a fortification on the St. Lawrence River, was built in 1759 by the French. They had decided that Fort de La Présentation was insufficient to defend the St. Lawrence against the British. Named for François Gaston de Lévis, Duc de Lévis, the fort was constructed on Isle Royale, three...
, making them allied with, and subjects of, the British king, who instructed General the Lord Amherst
Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst
Field Marshal Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst KCB served as an officer in the British Army and as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.Amherst is best known as one of the victors of the French and Indian War, when he conquered Louisbourg, Quebec City and...
to treat the First Nations "upon the same principals of humanity and proper indulgence" as the French, and to "cultivate the best possible harmony and Friendship with the Chiefs of the Indian Tribes." The retention of civil code
Civil law (legal system)
Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...
in Quebec, though, caused the relations between the Crown and First Nations in that jurisdiction to be viewed as dissimilar to those that existed in the other Canadian colonies.
In 1763, George III issued a Royal Proclamation
Royal Proclamation of 1763
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War...
that acknowledged the First Nations as autonomous political units and affirmed their title to their lands; it became the main document governing the parameters of the relationship between the sovereign and his aboriginal subjects in North America. The King thereafter ordered Sir William Johnson to make the proclamation known to the aboriginal nations under the King's sovereignty and, by 1766, its provisions were already put into practical use: In that year, the Imperial Privy Council endorsed a grant of 20000 acres (80.9 km²) to Joseph Marie Philibot at a location of his choosing, but Philibot's request for land on the Restigouche River
Restigouche River
The Restigouche River is a river that flows across the northwestern part of the province of New Brunswick and the southeastern part of Quebec....
was denied by the Governor of Quebec on the grounds that "the lands so prayed to be assigned are, or are claimed to be, the property of the Indians and as such by His Majesty's express command as set forth in his proclamation in 1763, not within their power to grant." In the prelude to the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
, native leader Joseph Brant
Joseph Brant
Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant was a Mohawk military and political leader, based in present-day New York, who was closely associated with Great Britain during and after the American Revolution. He was perhaps the most well-known American Indian of his generation...
took the King up on this offer of protection and voyaged to London between 1775 and 1776 to meet with George III in person and discuss the aggressive expansionist policies of the American colonists.
After the American Revolution
Treaty of Paris (1783)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain on the one hand and the United States of America and its allies on the other. The other combatant nations, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic had separate agreements; for details of...
, signed in 1783 between King George and the American Congress of the Confederation
Congress of the Confederation
The Congress of the Confederation or the United States in Congress Assembled was the governing body of the United States of America that existed from March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789. It comprised delegates appointed by the legislatures of the states. It was the immediate successor to the Second...
, British North America was divided into the sovereign United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
(US) and the still British Canadas
The Canadas
The Canadas is the collective name for Upper Canada and Lower Canada, two British colonies in Canada. They were both created by the Constitutional Act of 1791 and abolished in 1841 with the union of Upper and Lower Canada....
, creating a new international border through some of those lands that had been set apart by the Crown for First Nations and completely immersing others within the new republic. As a result, some aboriginal tribes felt betrayed by the King and their service to the monarch was detailed in oratories that called on the Crown to keep its promises, especially after nations that had allied themselves with the British sovereign were driven from their lands by Americans. New treaties were drafted and those indigenous nations that had lost their territories in the United States, or simply wished to not live under the US government, were granted new land in Canada by the King.
The Mohawk Nation
Mohawk nation
Mohawk are the most easterly tribe of the Iroquois confederation. They call themselves Kanien'gehaga, people of the place of the flint...
was one such group, which abandoned its Mohawk Valley
Mohawk Valley
The Mohawk Valley region of the U.S. state of New York is the area surrounding the Mohawk River, sandwiched between the Adirondack Mountains and Catskill Mountains....
territory, in present day New York State, after Americans destroyed the natives' settlement, including the chapel donated by Queen Anne following the visit to London of the Four Mohawk Kings. As compensation, George III promised land in Canada to the Six Nations and, in 1784, some Mohawks settled in what is now the Bay of Quinte
Bay of Quinte
The Bay of Quinte is a long, narrow bay shaped like the letter "Z" on the northern shore of Lake Ontario in the province of Ontario, Canada. It is just west of the head of the Saint Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence...
and the Grand River Valley
Six Nations 40, Ontario
Six Nations is the largest First Nation in Canada with a total of 23,902 band members. 11,865 are reported living in the territory. It is the only territory in North America that has the six Iroquois nations living together. These nations are the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and...
, where North America's only two Chapels Royal
Chapel Royal
A Chapel Royal is a body of priests and singers who serve the spiritual needs of their sovereign wherever they are called upon to do so.-Austria:...
Christ Church Royal Chapel of the Mohawks
Christ Church Royal Chapel
Christ Church, Her Majesty's Chapel Royal of the Mohawk is located near Deseronto, Ontario, and is one of only six Royal chapels outside of the United Kingdom, and one of two in Canada...
and Her Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks
Mohawk Chapel
Her Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks, the oldest building in Ontario, is one of six Chapels Royal outside of the United Kingdom, and one of two in Canada, the other being Christ Church Royal Chapel near Deseronto, Ontario. It was elevated to a Chapel Royal by Edward VII in 1904...
were built to symbolise the connection between the Mohawk people and the Crown. Thereafter, the treaties with aboriginals across southern Ontario were dubbed the Covenant Chain
Covenant Chain
The Covenant Chain was a series of alliances and treaties involving the Iroquois Confederacy , the British colonies of North America, and a number of other Indian tribes...
and ensured the preservation of First Nations' rights not provided elsewhere in the Americas.
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
.
In 1860, during one of the first true royal tours of Canada
Royal tours of Canada
Canadian royal tours have been taking place since 1786, and continue into the 21st century, either as an official tour, a working tour, a vacation, or a period of military service by a member of the Canadian Royal Family...
, First Nations put on displays, expressed their loyalty to Queen Victoria
Victoria of the United Kingdom
Victoria was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India....
and presented concerns about misconduct on the part of the Indian Department to the Queen's son, Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910...
, when he was in Upper Canada
Upper Canada
The Province of Upper Canada was a political division in British Canada established in 1791 by the British Empire to govern the central third of the lands in British North America and to accommodate Loyalist refugees from the United States of America after the American Revolution...
. In that same year, Nahnebahwequay of the Ojibwa
Ojibwa
The Ojibwe or Chippewa are among the largest groups of Native Americans–First Nations north of Mexico. They are divided between Canada and the United States. In Canada, they are the third-largest population among First Nations, surpassed only by Cree and Inuit...
secured an audience with the Queen. When Governor General the Marquess of Lorne
John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll
John George Edward Henry Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll KG, KT, GCMG, GCVO, VD, PC , usually better known by the courtesy title Marquess of Lorne, by which he was known between 1847 and 1900, was a British nobleman and was the fourth Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883...
and his wife, Princess Louise
Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll
The Princess Louise was a member of the British Royal Family, the sixth child and fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and her husband, Albert, Prince Consort.Louise's early life was spent moving between the various royal residences in the...
, a daughter of Queen Victoria, visited British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
in 1882, they were greeted upon arrival in New Westminster by a floatilla of local Aboriginals in canoes who sang songs of welcome before the royal couple landed and proceeded through a ceremonial arch built by Aboriginals, which was hung with a banner reading "Clahowya Queenastenass", Chinookian
Chinookan languages
Chinookan is a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples.-Family division:Chinookan languages consists of three languages with multiple varieties. There is some dispute over classification, and there are two ISO 639-3 codes assigned: and...
for "Welcome Queen." The following day, the Duke and Duchess gave their presence to an event attended by thousands of First Nations people and at least 40 chiefs. One presented the Princess with baskets, a bracelet, and a ring of Aboriginal make and Louise said in response that, when she returned to the United Kingdom, she would show these items to the Queen.
Once the Dominion Crown purchased what remained of Rupert's Land
Rupert's Land
Rupert's Land, or Prince Rupert's Land, was a territory in British North America, consisting of the Hudson Bay drainage basin that was nominally owned by the Hudson's Bay Company for 200 years from 1670 to 1870, although numerous aboriginal groups lived in the same territory and disputed the...
from the Hudson's Bay Company and colonial settlement expanded westwards, more treaties were signed between 1871 and 1921, wherein the Crown brokered land exchanges that granted the aboriginal societies reserves and other compensation, such as livestock, ammunition, education, health care, and certain rights to hunt and fish. This situation under the Crown was regarded by the First Nations as better than that which had befallen their brethren in the United States. The treaties did not ensure peace: as evidenced by the North-West Rebellion
North-West Rebellion
The North-West Rebellion of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the Métis people of the District of Saskatchewan under Louis Riel against the Dominion of Canada...
of 1885, sparked by Métis people's
Métis people (Canada)
The Métis are one of the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who trace their descent to mixed First Nations parentage. The term was historically a catch-all describing the offspring of any such union, but within generations the culture syncretised into what is today a distinct aboriginal group, with...
concerns over their survival and discontent on the part of Cree
Cree
The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations / Native Americans in North America, with 200,000 members living in Canada. In Canada, the major proportion of Cree live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories, although...
people over perceived unfairness in the treaties signed with Queen Victoria.
Independent Canada
Following Canada's legislative independence from the United Kingdom codified by the Statute of Westminster, 1931 relations both statutory and ceremonial between sovereign and First Nations continued unaffected as the British Crown in Canada morphed into a distinctly Canadian monarchy. Indeed, during the 1939 tour of Canada by King George VIGeorge VI of the United Kingdom
George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death...
and Queen Elizabeth
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the queen consort of King George VI from 1936 until her husband's death in 1952, after which she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, to avoid confusion with her daughter, Queen Elizabeth II...
an event intended to express the new independence of Canada and its monarchy First Nations journeyed to city centres like Regina, Saskatchewan
Regina, Saskatchewan
Regina is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The city is the second-largest in the province and a cultural and commercial centre for southern Saskatchewan. It is governed by Regina City Council. Regina is the cathedral city of the Roman Catholic and Romanian Orthodox...
, and Calgary
Calgary
Calgary is a city in the Province of Alberta, Canada. It is located in the south of the province, in an area of foothills and prairie, approximately east of the front ranges of the Canadian Rockies...
, Alberta
Alberta
Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces...
, to meet with the King and present gifts and other displays of loyalty. In the course of the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
that followed soon after George's tour, more than 3,000 aboriginal and Métis Canadians fought for the Canadian Crown and country, some receiving personal recognition from the King, such as Tommy Prince
Tommy Prince
Thomas George "Tommy" Prince, MM was one of Canada's most decorated First Nations soldiers, serving in World War II and the Korean War.-Early life:...
, who was presented with the Military Medal
Military Medal
The Military Medal was a military decoration awarded to personnel of the British Army and other services, and formerly also to personnel of other Commonwealth countries, below commissioned rank, for bravery in battle on land....
and, on behalf of the President of the United States
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
, the Silver Star
Silver Star
The Silver Star is the third-highest combat military decoration that can be awarded to a member of any branch of the United States armed forces for valor in the face of the enemy....
by the King at Buckingham Palace.
Squamish Nation Chief Joe Mathias was amongst the Canadian dignitaries who were invited to attend the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London in 1953.
When George's daughter, Queen Elizabeth II, toured Canada twenty years later, similar interactions took place: In Labrador
Labrador
Labrador is the distinct, northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the mainland portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle...
, Elizabeth was greeted by the Chief of the Montagnais and given a pair of beaded moose-hide jackets; at Gaspé, Quebec
Gaspé, Quebec
Gaspé is a city at the tip of the Gaspé Peninsula in the Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine region of eastern Quebec, Canada. As of the 2006 census, the city had a total population of 14,819....
, the Queen and her husband were presented with deerskin coats by two local aboriginal people; and in Ottawa, a man from the Kahnawake Mohawk Territory passed to officials a 200 year old wampum
Wampum
Wampum are traditional, sacred shell beads of the Eastern Woodlands tribes of the indigenous people of North America. Wampum include the white shell beads fashioned from the North Atlantic channeled whelk shell; and the white and purple beads made from the quahog, or Western North Atlantic...
as a gift for Elizabeth. It was during that journey that the Queen became the first member of the Royal Family to meet with Inuit representatives, doing so in Stratford, Ontario
Stratford, Ontario
Stratford is a city on the Avon River in Perth County in southwestern Ontario, Canada with a population of 32,000.When the area was first settled by Europeans in 1832, the townsite and the river were named after Stratford-upon-Avon, England. It is the seat of Perth County. Stratford was...
, and the royal train stopped in Brantford, Ontario
Brantford, Ontario
Brantford is a city located on the Grand River in Southern Ontario, Canada. While geographically surrounded by the County of Brant, the city is politically independent...
, so that the Queen could sign the Six Nations Queen Anne Bible in the presence of Six Nations leaders. Across the prairies
Canadian Prairies
The Canadian Prairies is a region of Canada, specifically in western Canada, which may correspond to several different definitions, natural or political. Notably, the Prairie provinces or simply the Prairies comprise the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, as they are largely covered...
, First Nations were present on the welcoming platforms in numerous cities and towns, and at the Calgary Stampede
Calgary Stampede
The Calgary Stampede is an annual rodeo, exhibition and festival held every July in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The ten-day event, which bills itself as "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth", attracts over one million visitors per year and features one of the world's largest rodeos, a parade, midway,...
, more than 300 Blackfoot
Blackfoot
The Blackfoot Confederacy or Niitsítapi is the collective name of three First Nations in Alberta and one Native American tribe in Montana....
, Tsuu T'ina
Tsuu T'ina Nation
The Tsuu T'ina Nation is a First Nation in Canada. Their territory is located on the Indian reserve Tsuu T'ina Nation 145, whose east side is adjacent to the southwest city limits of Calgary, Alberta...
, and Nakoda
Nakoda (people)
The Nakoda are a First Nation group, indigenous to both Canada and, originally, the United States....
performed a war dance
War dance
A war dance is a dance involving mock combat, usually in reference to tribal warrior societies where such dances were performed as a ritual connected with endemic warfare....
and erected approximately 30 teepees, amongst which the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh walked, meeting with various chiefs. In Nanaimo, British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
, a longer meeting took place between Elizabeth and the Salish
Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation
The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Reservation are the Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai and Pend d'Oreilles Tribes. The Flatheads lived between the Cascade Mountains and Rocky Mountains. The Salish initially lived entirely east of the Continental Divide but established their...
, wherein the latter conferred on the former the title of Mother of all People, and, following a dance of welcome, the Queen and her consort spent 45 minutes 20 more than allotted touring a replica First Nations village and chatting with some 200 people.
In 1970, Elizabeth II's presence at The Pas, Manitoba
The Pas, Manitoba
The Pas is a town in Manitoba, Canada, located in Division No. 21, Manitoba in the Northern Region, some 630 kilometres northwest of the provincial capital, Winnipeg, near the border of Saskatchewan. It is sometimes still called Paskoyac by locals as the first trading post was called Fort Paskoyac...
, provided an opportunity for the Opaskwayak Cree Nation
Opaskwayak Cree Nation
The Opaskwayak Cree Nation is a First Nation in Manitoba, Canada. Opaskwayak means "where the two rivers meet". The First Nation has territory near The Pas, Manitoba, along the Saskatchewan River. The First Nation hosts the Opaskwayak Indian Days annually each August. The OCN Blizzard, a...
to publicly express their perceptions of injustice meted out by the government; three years later, the Queen assured native chiefs in Alberta that "her government recognized the importance of full compliance with the spirit and intent of treaties".
During a royal tour by the Queen in 1973, Harold Cardinal
Harold Cardinal
Dr. Harold Cardinal was a Cree writer, political leader, teacher, negotiator and lawyer.Dr. Harold Cardinal was a Cree writer, political leader, teacher, negotiator and lawyer.Dr...
delivered a politically charged speech to the monarch and the Queen responded; the whole exchange having been pre-approved between the two.
Still, at the same time, aboriginal people were not always granted the personal time with the Queen that they desired; the meetings with First Nations and Inuit tended to be purely ceremonial affairs wherein treaty issues were not officially discussed. For instance, when Queen Elizabeth arrived in Stoney Creek, Ontario
Stoney Creek, Ontario
Stoney Creek is a community in Ontario, Canada.Note: This article will only deal with matters up to its amalgamation with Hamilton.-Geography and population:...
, five chiefs in full feathered headdress
War bonnet
Feathered war bonnets were worn by honored Plains Indian men, sometimes into battle, but most often for ceremonial occasions, and were seen as items of great spiritual and magical importance...
and a cortege of 20 braves and their consorts came to present to her a letter outlining their grievances, but were prevented by officials from meeting with the sovereign.
Constitutional patriation
Like her predecessors, the Queen also received First Nations delegations at Buckingham Palace, such as the group of Alberta Aboriginal Chiefs who, along with Lieutenant Governor of AlbertaLieutenant Governor of Alberta
The Lieutenant Governor of Alberta is the viceregal representative in Alberta of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the nine other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...
and Cree chief Ralph Steinhauer
Ralph Steinhauer
Ralph Garvin Steinhauer, OC was the first Aboriginal to become the tenth Lieutenant Governor of Alberta.Born in Morley, Alberta , he was a Cree....
, held audience with the monarch there in 1976.
In the prelude to the patriation
Patriation
Patriation is a non-legal term used in Canada to describe a process of constitutional change also known as "homecoming" of the constitution. Up until 1982, Canada was governed by a constitution that was a British law and could be changed only by an Act of the British Parliament...
of the Canadian constitution
Constitution of Canada
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada; the country's constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It outlines Canada's system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada...
in 1982, First Nations leaders campaigned for and against the proposed move, many asserting that the federal ministers of the Crown
Minister of the Crown
Minister of the Crown is the formal constitutional term used in the Commonwealth realms to describe a minister to the reigning sovereign. The term indicates that the minister serves at His/Her Majesty's pleasure, and advises the monarch, or viceroy, on how to exercise the Crown prerogatives...
at that time had no right to advise the Queen that she sever, without consent from the First Nations, the treaty rights she and her ancestors had long granted to aboriginal Canadians. Worrying to them was the fact that their relationship with the monarch had, over the preceding century, come to be interpreted by Indian Affairs officials as one of subordination to the government a misreading on the part of non-aboriginals of the terms Great White Mother and her Indian Children. Indeed, First Nations representatives were locked out of constitutional conferences in the late 1970s, leading the National Indian Brotherhood
Assembly of First Nations
The Assembly of First Nations , formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood, is a body of First Nations leaders in Canada...
(NIB) to make plans to petition the Queen directly. The Liberal
Liberal Party of Canada
The Liberal Party of Canada , colloquially known as the Grits, is the oldest federally registered party in Canada. In the conventional political spectrum, the party sits between the centre and the centre-left. Historically the Liberal Party has positioned itself to the left of the Conservative...
Cabinet at the time, not wishing to be embarrassed by having the monarch intervene, extended to the NIB an invitation to talks at the ministerial level, though not the first ministers' meetings. But the invite came just before the election in May 1979
Canadian federal election, 1979
The Canadian federal election of 1979 was held on May 22, 1979 to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 31st Parliament of Canada. It resulted in the defeat of Liberal Party of Canada after 11 years in power under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Joe Clark led the Progressive...
, which put the Progressive Conservative Party
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
The Progressive Conservative Party of Canada was a Canadian political party with a centre-right stance on economic issues and, after the 1970s, a centrist stance on social issues....
into Cabinet and the new ministers of the Crown decided to advise the Queen not to meet with the NIB delegation, while telling the NIB that the Queen had no power. The ministers of the Crown eventually reversed their position and offered a similar invitation to constitutional talks, but the NIB party, consisting of over 200 people, had already departed for London.
No meeting with the Queen took place, but the indigenous Canadians' position was confirmed by Master of the Rolls
Master of the Rolls
The Keeper or Master of the Rolls and Records of the Chancery of England, known as the Master of the Rolls, is the second most senior judge in England and Wales, after the Lord Chief Justice. The Master of the Rolls is the presiding officer of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal...
the Lord Denning
Alfred Denning, Baron Denning
Alfred Thompson "Tom" Denning, Baron Denning, OM, PC, DL, KC , commonly known as Lord Denning, was a British soldier, mathematician, lawyer and judge. He gained degrees in mathematics and law at Oxford University, although his studies were disrupted by his service in the First World War...
, who ruled that the relationship was indeed one between sovereign and First Nations directly, clarifying further that, since the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931, the Canadian Crown had come to be distinct from the British Crown
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The monarchy of the United Kingdom is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties...
, though the two were still held by the same monarch, leaving the treaties sound. Upon their return to Canada, the NIB was granted access to first ministers' meetings and the ability to address the premiers.
Some 15 years later, Governor General-in-Council
Queen-in-Council
The Queen-in-Council is, in each of the Commonwealth realms, the technical term of constitutional law that refers to the exercise of executive authority, denoting the monarch acting by and with the advice and consent of his or her privy council or executive council The Queen-in-Council (during...
, per the Inquiry Act and on the advice of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney
Brian Mulroney
Martin Brian Mulroney, was the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of major economic reforms, such as the Canada-U.S...
, established the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a Canadian Royal Commission established in 1991 to address many issues of aboriginal status that had come to light with recent events such as the Oka Crisis and the Meech Lake Accord. The commission culminated in a final report of 4000 pages,...
to address a number of concerns surrounding the relationship between aboriginal and non-aboriginal people in Canada. After 178 days of public hearings, visits by 96 communities, and numerous reviews and reports, the central conclusion reached was that "the main policy direction, pursued for more than 150 years, first by colonial then by Canadian governments, has been wrong," focusing on the previous attempts at cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
. It was recommended that the nation-to-nation relationship of mutual respect be re-established between the Crown and First Nations, specifically calling for the monarch to "announce the establishment of a new era of respect for the treaties" and renew the treaty process through the issuance of a new royal proclamation as supplement to the Royal Proclamation of 1763. It was argued by Tony Hall, a professor of Native American studies at the University of Lethbridge
University of Lethbridge
The University of Lethbridge is a publicly-funded comprehensive academic and research university, founded in the liberal education tradition, located in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, with two other urban campuses in Calgary and Edmonton. The main building sits among the coulees on the west side of...
, that the friendly relations between monarch and indigenous Canadians must continue as a means to exercise Canadian sovereignty
Canadian sovereignty
The sovereignty of Canada is major cultural matter in Canada. Several issues currently define Canadian sovereignty: the Canadian monarchy, telecommunication, the autonomy of provinces, and Canada's Arctic border....
.
In 1994, while the Queen and her then Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Canada
The Prime Minister of Canada is the primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government for Canada, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or viceroy on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution...
, Jean Chrétien
Jean Chrétien
Joseph Jacques Jean Chrétien , known commonly as Jean Chrétien is a former Canadian politician who was the 20th Prime Minister of Canada. He served in the position for over ten years, from November 4, 1993 to December 12, 2003....
, were attending an aboriginal cultural festival in Yellowknife, the Dene
Dene
The Dene are an aboriginal group of First Nations who live in the northern boreal and Arctic regions of Canada. The Dené speak Northern Athabaskan languages. Dene is the common Athabaskan word for "people" . The term "Dene" has two usages...
community of the Northwest Territories
Northwest Territories
The Northwest Territories is a federal territory of Canada.Located in northern Canada, the territory borders Canada's two other territories, Yukon to the west and Nunavut to the east, and three provinces: British Columbia to the southwest, and Alberta and Saskatchewan to the south...
presented a list of grievances over stalled land claim negotiations. Similarly, the Queen and Chrétien visited in 1997 the community of Sheshatshiu
Sheshatshiu, Newfoundland and Labrador
Sheshatshiu is an Innu Federal Reserve in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, located approximately 20 kilometres north of Goose Bay. Sheshatshiu is an Innu Federal Reserve in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, located approximately 20 kilometres north of Goose...
in Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province of Canada. Situated in the country's Atlantic region, it incorporates the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador with a combined area of . As of April 2011, the province's estimated population is 508,400...
, where the Innu
Innu
The Innu are the indigenous inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan , which comprises most of the northeastern portions of the provinces of Quebec and some western portions of Labrador...
people of Quebec and Labrador
Labrador
Labrador is the distinct, northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the mainland portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle...
presented a letter of grievance over stagnant land claim talks. On both occasions, instead of giving the documents to the Prime Minister, as he was not party to the treaty agreements, they were handed by the Chiefs to the Queen, who, after speaking with the them, then passed the list and letter to Chrétien for he and the other ministers of the Crown
Minister of the Crown
Minister of the Crown is the formal constitutional term used in the Commonwealth realms to describe a minister to the reigning sovereign. The term indicates that the minister serves at His/Her Majesty's pleasure, and advises the monarch, or viceroy, on how to exercise the Crown prerogatives...
to address and advise
Advice (constitutional)
Advice, in constitutional law, is formal, usually binding, instruction given by one constitutional officer of state to another. Especially in parliamentary systems of government, Heads of state often act on the basis of advice issued by prime ministers or other government ministers...
the Queen or her viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
on how to proceed.
Still, as recently as 2005, First Nations were complaining that, during the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Alberta and Saskatchewan that year, they were relegated to a merely ceremonial role, being denied by federal and provincial ministers any access to the Queen in private audience. First Nations leaders have also raised concerns about what they see as a crumbling relationship between their people and the Crown, fuelled by the failure of the federal and provincial cabinets to resolve land claim disputes, as well as a perceived intervention of the Crown into aboriginal affairs. Formal relations have also not yet been founded between the monarchy and a number of First Nations around Canada; such as those in British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
who are still engaged in the process of treaty making
British Columbia Treaty Process
The British Columbia Treaty Process is a land claims negotiation process started in 1993 to resolve outstanding issues - including claims to un-extinguished aboriginal rights - with British Columbia's First Nations....
.
Portraits of the Four Mohawk Kings that had been commissioned while the aboriginal leaders were in London had then hung at Kensington Palace
Kensington Palace
Kensington Palace is a royal residence set in Kensington Gardens in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in London, England. It has been a residence of the British Royal Family since the 17th century and is the official London residence of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, the Duke and...
for nearly 270 years, until Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 donated them to the Canadian Collection at the National Archives of Canada
Library and Archives Canada
Library and Archives Canada is a national memory institution dedicated to providing the best possible account of Canadian life through acquiring, preserving and making Canada's documentary heritage accessible for use in the 21st century and beyond...
, unveiling them personally in Ottawa. That same year, the Queen's son, Prince Charles, Prince of Wales
Charles, Prince of Wales
Prince Charles, Prince of Wales is the heir apparent and eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Since 1958 his major title has been His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales. In Scotland he is additionally known as The Duke of Rothesay...
, visited Alberta to attend celebrations marking the 100th anniversary of the signing of Treaty 7
Treaty 7
Treaty 7 was an agreement between Queen Victoria and several mainly Blackfoot First Nations tribes in what is today the southern portion of Alberta. It was concluded on September 22, 1877. The agreement was signed at the Blackfoot Crossing of the Bow River, at the present-day Siksika Nation...
, when he was made a Kainai
Kainai Nation
The Kainai Nation is a First Nation in southern Alberta, Canada with a population of 7,437 members in 2005, and had a population of 9,035 members as of 9 February 2008...
chieftain, and, as a bicentennial gift in 1984, Elizabeth II gave to the Christ Church Royal Chapel
Christ Church Royal Chapel
Christ Church, Her Majesty's Chapel Royal of the Mohawk is located near Deseronto, Ontario, and is one of only six Royal chapels outside of the United Kingdom, and one of two in Canada...
of the Mohawks a silver chalice to replace that which was lost from the 1712 Queen Anne set during the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
. In 2003, Elizabeth's other son, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex KG GCVO is the third son and fourth child of Elizabeth II and The Duke of Edinburgh...
, opened the Regina, Saskatchewan
Regina, Saskatchewan
Regina is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The city is the second-largest in the province and a cultural and commercial centre for southern Saskatchewan. It is governed by Regina City Council. Regina is the cathedral city of the Roman Catholic and Romanian Orthodox...
, campus of the First Nations University of Canada
First Nations University of Canada
The First Nations University of Canada is a university in Saskatchewan, Canada with campuses in Regina, Saskatoon, and Prince Albert...
, where the Queen made her first stop during her 2005 tour of Saskatchewan and Alberta and presented the university with a commemorative granite plaque.
A similar scene took place at British Columbia's Government House
Government House (British Columbia)
Government House of British Columbia is the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, as well as that in Victoria of the Canadian monarch, and has casually been described as "the Ceremonial Home of all British Columbians." It stands in the provincial capital on a 8.9 ha ...
, when in 2009 Shawn Atleo
Shawn Atleo
Shawn A-in-chut Atleo is a Canadian First Nations activist and the current national chief of the Assembly of First Nations. Formerly the AFN's regional chief in British Columbia, he was selected as the new national chief of the AFN at its leadership convention on July 23, 2009, defeating Perry...
, the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations
Assembly of First Nations
The Assembly of First Nations , formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood, is a body of First Nations leaders in Canada...
, presented Prince Charles, Prince of Wales
Charles, Prince of Wales
Prince Charles, Prince of Wales is the heir apparent and eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Since 1958 his major title has been His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales. In Scotland he is additionally known as The Duke of Rothesay...
, with a letter of complaint about the Crown's fulfillment of its treaty duties, and requested a meeting with the Queen.
Prince Charles in 2009 added another dimension to the relationship between the Crown and First Nations when, in a speech in Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver is a coastal seaport city on the mainland of British Columbia, Canada. It is the hub of Greater Vancouver, which, with over 2.3 million residents, is the third most populous metropolitan area in the country,...
, he drew a connection between his own personal interests and concerns in environmentalism
Environmentalism
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements...
and the cultural practices and traditions of Canada's First Nations.
On 4 July 2010, Queen Elizabeth II presented to Her Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks
Mohawk Chapel
Her Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks, the oldest building in Ontario, is one of six Chapels Royal outside of the United Kingdom, and one of two in Canada, the other being Christ Church Royal Chapel near Deseronto, Ontario. It was elevated to a Chapel Royal by Edward VII in 1904...
and Christ Church Royal Chapel
Christ Church Royal Chapel
Christ Church, Her Majesty's Chapel Royal of the Mohawk is located near Deseronto, Ontario, and is one of only six Royal chapels outside of the United Kingdom, and one of two in Canada...
sets of handbell
Handbell
A handbell is a bell designed to be rung by hand. To ring a handbell, a ringer grasps the bell by its slightly flexible handle — traditionally made of leather, but often now made of plastic — and moves the wrist to make the hinged clapper inside the bell strike...
s, to symbolise the councils and treaties between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Crown.
Viceroys and Aboriginals
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
. After the American Revolution, a tradition was initiated in eastern Canada of appealing to the viceregal representatives for redress of grievances, and later, after returning from a cross-country tour in 1901, during which he met with First Nations in the Yukon
Yukon
Yukon is the westernmost and smallest of Canada's three federal territories. It was named after the Yukon River. The word Yukon means "Great River" in Gwich’in....
, Governor General
Governor General of Canada
The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II...
The Earl of Minto
Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto
Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto was a British nobleman and politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the eighth since Canadian Confederation, and as Viceroy and Governor-General of India, the country's 17th.-Early life and career:Minto was born in London, the...
urged his ministers to redress the wrongs he had witnessed in the north and to preserve native heritage and folklore.
Federal and provincial viceroys also met with First Nations leaders for more ceremonial occasions, such as when in 1867 Canada's first Governor General, The Viscount Monk, met with a native chief, in full feathers, amongst some of the first guests at Rideau Hall
Rideau Hall
Rideau Hall is, since 1867, the official residence in Ottawa of both the Canadian monarch and the Governor General of Canada. It stands in Canada's capital on a 0.36 km2 estate at 1 Sussex Drive, with the main building consisting of 170 rooms across 9,500 m2 , and 24 outbuildings around the...
. The Marguess of Lansdowne
Henry Petty-FitzMaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne
Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, PC was a British politician and Irish peer who served successively as the fifth Governor General of Canada, Viceroy of India, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs...
smoked a calumet
Calumet (pipe)
A Calumet is a ceremonial smoking pipe used by some Native American Nations. Traditionally it has been smoked to seal a covenant or treaty, or to offer prayers in a religious ceremony.- Etymology :...
with aboriginal people in the Prairies
Canadian Prairies
The Canadian Prairies is a region of Canada, specifically in western Canada, which may correspond to several different definitions, natural or political. Notably, the Prairie provinces or simply the Prairies comprise the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, as they are largely covered...
, The Marquess of Lorne
John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll
John George Edward Henry Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll KG, KT, GCMG, GCVO, VD, PC , usually better known by the courtesy title Marquess of Lorne, by which he was known between 1847 and 1900, was a British nobleman and was the fourth Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883...
was there named Great Brother-in-Law, and The Lord Tweedsmuir
John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir
John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir was a Scottish novelist, historian and Unionist politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the 15th since Canadian Confederation....
was honoured by the Kainai Nation
Kainai Nation
The Kainai Nation is a First Nation in southern Alberta, Canada with a population of 7,437 members in 2005, and had a population of 9,035 members as of 9 February 2008...
through being made a chief of the Blood Indians and met with Grey Owl
Grey Owl
Grey Owl was the name Archibald Belaney adopted when he took on a First Nations identity as an adult...
in Saskatchewan. The Earl Alexander of Tunis
Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis
Field Marshal Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis was a British military commander and field marshal of Anglo-Irish descent who served with distinction in both world wars and, afterwards, as Governor General of Canada, the 17th since Canadian...
was presented with a totem pole
Totem pole
Totem poles are monumental sculptures carved from large trees, mostly Western Red Cedar, by cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America...
by Kwakiutl
Kwakiutl
The term Kwakiutl, historically applied to the entire Kwakwaka'wakw ethno-linguistic group of originally 28 tribes, comes from one of the Kwakwaka'wakw tribes, the Kwagu'ł or Kwagyeulth, at Fort Rupert, with whom Franz Boas did most of his anthropological work and whose Indian Act Band government...
carver Mungo Martin
Mungo Martin
Chief Mungo Martin or Nakapenkem , Datsa , was an important figure in Northwest Coast style art, specifically that of the Kwakwaka'wakw peoples. He was a major contributor to Kwakwaka'wakw art, especially in the realm of wood sculpture and painting...
, which Alexander erected on the grounds of Rideau Hall
Rideau Hall
Rideau Hall is, since 1867, the official residence in Ottawa of both the Canadian monarch and the Governor General of Canada. It stands in Canada's capital on a 0.36 km2 estate at 1 Sussex Drive, with the main building consisting of 170 rooms across 9,500 m2 , and 24 outbuildings around the...
, where it stands today with the inukshuk
Inukshuk
An inuksuk is a stone landmark or cairn built by humans, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America. These structures are found from Alaska to Greenland...
by artist Kananginak Pootoogook that was commissioned in 1997 by Governor General Roméo LeBlanc
Roméo LeBlanc
Roméo-Adrien LeBlanc was a Canadian journalist, politician, and statesman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 25th since Canadian Confederation....
to commemorate the second National Aboriginal Day
National Aboriginal Day
National Aboriginal Day is a day recognizing and celebrating the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21...
. Governor General The Viscount Byng of Vimy
Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy
Field Marshal Julian Hedworth George Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy was a British Army officer who served as Governor General of Canada, the 12th since Canadian Confederation....
undertook a far-reaching tour of the north in 1925, during which the he met with First Nations and heard their grievances at Fort Providence
Fort Providence, Northwest Territories
Fort Providence is a hamlet in the South Slave Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada...
and Fort Simpson
Fort Simpson, Northwest Territories
Fort Simpson is a village in the Dehcho Region of the Northwest Territories, Canada. The community is located on an island at the confluence of the Mackenzie and Liard Rivers...
. Later, Governor General Edward Schreyer
Edward Schreyer
Edward Richard Schreyer , commonly known as Ed Schreyer, is a Canadian politician, diplomat, and statesman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 22nd since Canadian Confederation....
was in 1984 made an honorary member of the Kainai Chieftainship, as was one his viceregal successors, Adrienne Clarkson
Adrienne Clarkson
Adrienne Louise Clarkson is a Canadian journalist and stateswoman who served as Governor General of Canada, the 26th since Canadian Confederation....
, who was made such on 23 July 2005, along with being adopted into the Blood Tribe with the name Grandmother of Many Nations. Clarkson was an avid supporter of Canada's north and Inuit culture, employing students from Nunavut Arctic College
Nunavut Arctic College
Nunavut Arctic College is a Crown corporation that is funded by the Government of Nunavut and has several campuses and centres spread out throughout Nunavut, Canada.-History:...
to assist in designing the Clarkson Cup
Clarkson Cup
The Clarkson Cup is an ice hockey trophy, which since 2009 has been awarded to the winner of the Canadian Women's Hockey Championship. Like the Stanley Cup, it was created by and named after a former Governor General of Canada: Adrienne Clarkson....
and creating the Governor General's Northern Medal
Governor General's Northern Medal
The Governor General's Northern Medal was created by Adrienne Clarkson on September 15, 2005, to provide awards to those who serve with distinction in Canada's north.The medal was designed by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin and the design consists of:...
.
Ralph Steinhauer
Ralph Garvin Steinhauer, OC was the first Aboriginal to become the tenth Lieutenant Governor of Alberta.Born in Morley, Alberta , he was a Cree....
was the first, having been made Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
Lieutenant Governor of Alberta
The Lieutenant Governor of Alberta is the viceregal representative in Alberta of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the nine other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...
on 2 July 1974; Steinhauer was from the Cree
Cree
The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations / Native Americans in North America, with 200,000 members living in Canada. In Canada, the major proportion of Cree live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories, although...
nation. W. Yvon Dumont
W. Yvon Dumont
W. Yvon Dumont, OM is a Manitoba politician and office-holder. In 1993, he became the first member of Manitoba's Métis community to be appointed as the province's 21st Lieutenant Governor. He was born in St. Laurent, Manitoba....
was of Métis
Métis people (Canada)
The Métis are one of the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who trace their descent to mixed First Nations parentage. The term was historically a catch-all describing the offspring of any such union, but within generations the culture syncretised into what is today a distinct aboriginal group, with...
heritage and served as Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba
Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba
The Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba is the viceregal representative in Manitoba of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the ten other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...
between 1993 and 1999. The first Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
The Lieutenant Governor of Ontario is the viceregal representative in Ontario of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the ten other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United...
of aboriginal heritage was James Bartleman, who was appointed to the position on 7 March 2002. A member of the Mnjikaning First Nation, Bartlemen listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities, and, during his time in the Queen's service, launched several initiatives to promote literacy and social bridge building, travelling to remote native communities in northern Ontario, pairing native and non-native schools, and creating the Lieutenant Governor's Book Program, which collected 1.4 million books that were flown into the province's north to stock shelves of First Nations community libraries. On 1 October 2007, Steven Point
Steven Point
Steven Lewis Point, is the 28th and current Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia.From 1975 to 1999, Steven Point served as Chief of the Skowkale First Nation...
, from the Skowkale First Nation
Skowkale First Nation
The Skowkale First Nation or Skowkale Indian Band is a band government of the Sto:lo people located in the Upper Fraser Valley region, near Sardis, part of Chilliwack, British Columbia, Canada. They are a member government of the Sto:lo Nation tribal council.-References:...
, was installed as Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia
Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia
The Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia is the viceregal representative in British Columbia of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared with equally the ten other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest...
, and Graydon Nicholas
Graydon Nicholas
Graydon Nicholas ONB is the 30th and current Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick. An attorney and judge, he is the first Aboriginal person to hold this office, as well as the first to be appointed as a provincial court judge , and the first in Atlantic Canada to obtain a law degree.-Early life...
, born on the Tobique Indian Reserve
Tobique First Nation
Tobique First Nation is one of six Wolastoqiyik or Maliseet Nations in New Brunswick, Canada.The Tobique Reserve is located on the north side of the Tobique River. The reserve comprises two lots . The Tobique Reserve, established in 1801 with nearly 20,000 acres, was granted after a petition to...
, was made Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
The Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick or Lieutenante-gouverneure du Nouveau-Brunswick) is the viceregal representative in New Brunswick of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the ten other jurisdictions of Canada...
on 30 September 2009.
See also
- Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status IndiansFederal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status IndiansThe position of Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians was created in 1985 as a portfolio in the Canadian Cabinet. As the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development is officially responsible only for Status Indians and largely with those living on Indian reserves, the new...
- History of CanadaHistory of CanadaThe history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Canada has been inhabited for millennia by distinctive groups of Aboriginal peoples, among whom evolved trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and social hierarchies...
- List of Canadian aboriginal leaders
- Status of First Nations treaties in British ColumbiaStatus of First Nations treaties in British ColumbiaThe status of the First Nations, aboriginal people of British Columbia , Canada, is a long-standing problem that has become a major issue in recent years. In 1763 the British Crown declared that only it could acquire land from First Nations through treaties. Historically only two treaties were...