The Languages of Africa is a 1963 book of essays by Joseph Greenberg

Joseph Greenberg

Joseph Harold Greenberg was a prominent and controversial American linguist, principally known for his work in two areas, linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages.- Early life and career :...

, in which he sets forth a genetic classification of African languages

African languages

There are over 2100 and by some counts over 3000 languages spoken natively in Africa in several major language families:*Afro-Asiatic spread throughout the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel...

 that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work Studies in African Linguistic Classification, which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by Indiana University

Indiana University Bloomington

Indiana University Bloomington is a public research university located in Bloomington, Indiana, in the United States. IU Bloomington is the flagship campus of the Indiana University system. Being the flagship campus, IU Bloomington is often referred to simply as IU or Indiana...

, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited.

Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method:

• "The sole relevance in comparison of resemblances involving both sound and meaning in specific forms."
• "Mass comparison
  Mass lexical comparison
  Mass comparison is a method developed by Joseph Greenberg to determine the level of genetic relatedness between languages. It is now usually called multilateral comparison...
  
   as against isolated comparisons between pairs of languages."
• "Only linguistic evidence is relevant in drawing conclusions about classification."

The second point, mass comparison, is controversial in historical linguistics

Historical linguistics

Historical linguistics is the study of language change. It has five main concerns:* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages...

. The third is completely uncontroversial in modern times, and is directed against previous African linguists (notably Meinhof

Carl Meinhof

Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof was a German linguist and one of the first linguists to study African languages.-Early years and career:...

) who had classified languages on typological

Linguistic typology

Linguistic typology is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages...

 and even racial grounds.

Novelties

His Niger–Congo family was substantially foreshadowed by Westermann

Diedrich Hermann Westermann

Diedrich Hermann Westermann was a German missionary, Africanist, and linguist. He substantially extended and revised the work of Carl Meinhof, his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly...

's "Western Sudanic", but he changed the subclassification, including Fulani

Fula language

The Fula or Fulani language is a language of West Africa. It is spoken as a first language by the and related groups from Senegambia and Guinea to Cameroon and Sudan...

 (as West Atlantic) and the newly postulated Adamawa–Eastern, excluding Songhai, and classifying Bantu

Bantu languages

The Bantu languages constitute a traditional sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, though the distinction between language and dialect is often unclear, and Ethnologue counts 535 languages...

 as merely a subfamily of Benue–Congo (previously termed "Semi-Bantu").

Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, and Cushitic had been generally accepted as members of a "Hamito-Semitic" family, while Chadic

Chadic languages

The Chadic languages constitute a language family of perhaps 200 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic and Cameroon, belonging to the Afroasiatic phylum...

, "Nilo-Hamitic", Fulani, and Hottentot had all been controversially proposed as members. He accepted Chadic (while changing its membership), and rejected the other three, establishing to most linguists' satisfaction that they had been classified as "Hamitic" for purely typological reasons. This demonstration also led to the rejection (by him and by linguistics as a whole) of the term Hamitic

Hamitic

Hamitic is an historical term for the peoples supposedly descended from Noah's son Ham, paralleling Semitic and Japhetic.It was formerly used for grouping the non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages , but since, unlike the Semitic branch, these have not been shown to form a phylogenetic unity, the term...

 as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "Afroasiatic

Afro-Asiatic languages

The Afroasiatic languages , also known as Hamito-Semitic, constitute one of the world's largest language families, with about 375 living languages...

". This has since been emended by changing the status of "Western Cushitic", making it an independent subfamily of Afroasiatic called Omotic.

Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hatsa and Sandawe; this change remains controversial, and is widely considered inadequately founded.

His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the Nilo-Saharan phylum; this is still highly controversial, despite the publication of claimed reconstructions of the family, but is widely used. Within this, he identified a major subgroup termed Chari–Nile, containing Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic, Kunama, and Berta; this has been generally rejected. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation.

Finally, he assigned the non-Nilo-Saharan languages of the Nuba Hills of Kordofan to a single subfamily (Kordofanian

Kordofanian languages

The Kordofanian languages are a geographic grouping of three to five language families spoken in the Nuba Mountains of Kordofan Province, Sudan. In 1963 Joseph Greenberg added them to the Niger–Congo family, creating his Niger–Kordofanian proposal...

), which together with Niger–Congo formed a new phylum, Congo–Kordofanian. This is generally accepted, with the exception of the "Tumtum" group, although it is unclear whether Kordofanian or Mande was the first branching.

Classification

The book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related, as follows:

I. Congo–Kordofanian

I.A Niger–Congo

Niger–Congo languages

The Niger–Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa's largest in terms of geographical area, number of speakers, and number of distinct languages. They may constitute the world's largest language family in terms of distinct languages, although this question...

I.A.1 West Atlantic

Atlantic languages

The Atlantic or West Atlantic languages of West Africa are an obsolete proposed major group of the Niger–Congo languages. They are those languages west of Kru which have the noun-class systems characteristic of the Niger–Congo family; in this they are distinguished from their Mande neighbors, which...

I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof

Wolof language

Wolof is a language spoken in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania, and is the native language of the Wolof people. Like the neighbouring languages Serer and Fula, it belongs to the Atlantic branch of the Niger–Congo language family...

, Serer-Sin, Fulani

Fula language

The Fula or Fulani language is a language of West Africa. It is spoken as a first language by the and related groups from Senegambia and Guinea to Cameroon and Sudan...

, Serer-Non

Noon language

Noon is a Cangin language of Senegal. Ethnologue reports that it is 84% cognate with Lehar, essentially a divergent dialect, and 68% cognate with the other Cangin languages....

, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada

Biafada language

Biafada is a Senegambian language of Guinea-Bissau.Biafada is heavily influenced by Mandinka. Variants on the name include Beafada, Bedfola, Biafar, Bidyola, Dfola, Fada....

, Badyara (Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak

Mandjak language

Mandjak is a Bak language of Guinea-Bissau and Senegal.Other spellings are Mandjaque, Mandyak, Manjaca, Manjaco, Manjaku, Manjiak, Mendyako, and Ndyak; another name is Kanyop....

, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana

Kobiana language

Kobiana or Buy is a Senegambian language of Senegal and Guinea-Bissau....

, Cassanga, Bidyogo

Bijago language

Bijago, or Bidyogo, is the language of the Bissagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau. There are some difficulties of grammar and intelligibility between dialects, with the Kamona dialect of Caravela and Carache Islands being unintelligible to the others....

.

I.A.1.b Southern: Temne

Temne language

Temne is a language of the Atlantic subfamily of Niger–Congo languages spoken in Sierra Leone by about 2 million first speakers. One of the country's most widely spoken languages, it is spoken by 30% of the country’s population...

, Baga

Baga languages

The Baga languages are languages of the Mel family spoken in the coastal region of Guinea. The total number of speakers is about 30,000, of which Landoma speakers make up almost half....

, Landoma

Landoma language

Landoma , or Cocoli, is a language of western Guinea. It is the most populous of the Baga languages, in the Mel branch of the Niger–Congo language family. It is related to Temne of Sierra Leone....

, Kissi

Kissi language

Kissi is a language split into two parts, northern and southern. The northern dialect is spoken in Guinea and in Sierra Leone. In its northern form, it often uses loanwords from the Malinke and the Mende language....

, Bulom

Bullom So language

The Bullom So language, also called Mmani or Mandingi, is an endangered language spoken near the border between Guinea and Sierra Leone. It belongs to the Mel branch of the Niger–Congo language family and is particularly closely related to the Bom language. The people have intermarried with Temne...

, Limba

Limba language

Limba is an erstwhile Atlantic language of Sierra Leone. It is not closely related to other languages and appears to form its own branch of Niger–Congo. The eastern variety, spoken primarily in Guinea, is quite distinct.-References:...

, Gola

Gola language

Gola is an erstwhile Atlantic language of Liberia. It is not closely related to other languages and appears to form its own branch of Niger–Congo.-References:*Guillaume Serere & Florian Lionnet 2010. . Language Isolates in Africa workshop, Lyon, Dec. 4...

I.A.2 Mande

Mande languages

The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in West Africa by the Mandé people and include Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Bissa, Dioula, Kagoro, Bozo, Mende, Susu, Yacouba, Vai, and Ligbi...

I.A.2.a Western

I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara

Bambara language

Bambara, more correctly known as Bamanankan , its designation in the language itself , is a language spoken in Mali by as many as six million people...

, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi

Ligbi language

Ligbi is a Mande language spoken in Ghana in the north-west corner of the Brong-Ahafo region. Ligbi is spoken by approximately 10 000 speakers . It is fairly closely related to Jula, Vai and Kono. A small population of Ligbi speakers is reported to live in Côte d'Ivoire . Ligbi is also known as...

, Huela, Vai

Vai language

The Vai language, alternately called Vy or Gallinas, is a Mande language, spoken by roughly 104,000 in Liberia and by smaller populations, some 15,500, in Sierra Leone. It is noteworthy for being one of the few sub-Saharan African languages to have a writing system that is not based on the Latin...

, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke

I.A.2.a.2 Bobo

I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle

Kpelle language

The Kpelle language is spoken by the Kpelle people and is part of the Mande family of languages. Guinean Kpelle [gkp] , spoken by half a million people, concentrated primarily, but not exclusively, in the forest regions of Guinea, whose capital, Nzérékoré, is the third largest city in Guinea and...

 (Guerze)

I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke

I.A.2.a.5 Soninke

Soninke language

The Soninke language is a Mande language spoken by the Soninke people of West Africa. The language has an estimated 1,096,795 speakers, primarily located in Mali, and also in Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Mauritania, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Ghana...

, Bozo

I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku (Sembla), Kpan, Banka

I.A.2.b Eastern

I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan

Dan language

Dan is a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia . There is also a population of about 800 speakers in Guinea. Dan is a tonal language, with three main tones and two glide/contour tones....

 (Gio), Guro (Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure.

I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga

I.A.3 Voltaic

Gur languages

The Gur languages, also known as Central Gur, belong to the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 70 languages belonging to this group. They are spoken in Burkina Faso, southern Mali, northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, northern Ghana, northern Togo, northwestern Benin, and southwestern Niger.Like most...

I.A.3.a Senoufo

Senufo languages

The Senufo or Senufic languages comprise ca. 15 languages spoken by the Senufo in the north of Côte d'Ivoire, the south of Mali and the southwest of Burkina Faso. An isolated language, Nafaanra, is also spoken in the west of Ghana. The Senufo languages are generally considered a branch of the Gur...

: Minianka, Tagba

Sucite language

Sucite is a Senufo language spoken in southwestern Burkina Faso by approximately 35 000 people. Sucite is a close neighbour of Supyire, spoken in southeastern Mali. Sucite is sometimes regarded as the northern extension of Supyire. The two dialects are, according to Garber , ‘quite mutually...

, Foro, Tagwana

Tagwana language

Tagwana is a southern Senufo of Ivory Coast. It is closely related to Djimini....

 (Takponin), Dyimini

Djimini language

Djimini is a southern Senufo of Ivory Coast. Blacksmiths among the Djimini once spoke Tonjon, a Mande language....

, Nafana

Nafaanra language

Nafaanra is a Senufo language spoken in northwest Ghana, along the border with Côte d'Ivoire, east of Bondouko. It is spoken by approximately 61,000 people. Its speakers call themselves Nafana; others call them Banda or Mfantera. Like other Senufo languages, Nafaanra is a tonal language...

I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: Lobi, Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, Dogon (1966: "should probably be considered a new separate subgroup. If anything, it is nearest to group c"), Kulango

I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba (Fulse), Sisala

I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c)

I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala

I.A.3.f Bargu (Bariba)

I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba

I.A.4 Kwa

Kwa languages

The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo...

I.A.4.a Kru

Kru languages

-References:* Westerman, Diedrich Hermann Languages of West Africa . London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.-External links:* at Ethnologue*...

: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi)

I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba

Logba language

Logba is a Kwa language spoken in the south-eastern Ghana by approximately 7 500 people. The Logba people call themselves and their language Ikpana, which means ‘defenders of truth’...

, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele

Adele language

The Adele language is spoken in central eastern Ghana and central western Togo. It belongs to the geographic group of Ghana Togo Mountain languages of the Kwa branch of Niger–Congo...

, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe

Ewe language

Ewe is a Niger–Congo language spoken in Ghana, Togo and Benin by approximately six million people. Ewe is part of a cluster of related languages commonly called Gbe, spoken in southeastern Ghana, Togo, and parts of Benin. Other Gbe languages include Fon, Gen, Phla Phera, and Aja...

, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe

Abé language

Abé is a language of uncertain classification within the Kwa branch of the Niger–Congo family. It is spoken in Côte d'Ivoire.The dialects of Abé are Tioffo, Morie, Abbey-Ve, and Kos...

, Adyukru, Akan

Akan language

Akan, also known as Twi and Fante, is an Akan language that is the principal native language of Ghana, spoken over much of the southern half of that country, by about 52% of the population, and to a lesser extent across the border in eastern Côte d'Ivoire...

 (Twi

Twi

Asante, or Ashanti, is one of three literary dialects of the Akan language of southern Ghana, and the prestige dialect of that language. It is spoken in and around Kumasi, the capital of the former Ashanti Empire and current subnational Asante Kingdom within Ghana.Along with the Akuapem dialect,...

, Anyi, Baule

Baoulé

The Baoulé are an Akan people and one of the largest groups in the Ivory Coast. The Baoulé are farmers who live in the eastern side of Côte d'Ivoire . The Baoule people are represented by religion, art, festivals, and equal society . There are more than sixty-five different Akan-speaking ethnic...

, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga

Ga language

The Ga language is a Kwa language spoken in Ghana, in and around the capital Accra. It has a phonemic distinction between 3 vowel lengths.-Classification:Ga is a Kwa language, part of the Niger–Congo family...

, Adangme

I.A.4.c Yoruba

Yoruba language

Yorùbá is a Niger–Congo language spoken in West Africa by approximately 20 million speakers. The native tongue of the Yoruba people, it is spoken, among other languages, in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo and in communities in other parts of Africa, Europe and the Americas...

, Igala

I.A.4.d Nupe

Nupe language

The Nupe language is spoken primarily by the Nupe people of the Middle Belt region of Nigeria; its geographical distribution is limited to the west-central portion of this region and maintains pre-eminence in Niger State.-External links:*** Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Nupe....

, Gbari, Igbira, Gade

I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan

Ishan

Ishan is an Indian Hindu masculine given name of Sanskrit origin. Its female form is Ishana. In Sanskrit the word Ishan refers to "The Lord Vishnu; The creator of the universe and all other Gods" and the north east direction . Ishaan has its roots in the word "Ish" which means the invisible power...

, Kukuruku, Sobo

Sobo

Sobo is a spirit or Lwa in the Haitian Vodou religion. He is the spirit of thunder and is always depicted and served with his inseparable companion/brother Bade, who is the spirit of wind. Together they are represented by the Catholic image of Saints Cosmas and Damian. He is probably West African...

I.A.4.f Idoma

Idoma language

The Idoma is an official language spoken in central Nigeria by nearly a million people....

, Agatu, Iyala

I.A.4.g Ibo

Igbo language

Igbo , or Igbo proper, is a native language of the Igbo people, an ethnic group primarily located in southeastern Nigeria. There are approximately 20 million speakers that are mostly in Nigeria and are primarily of Igbo descent. Igbo is a national language of Nigeria. It is written in the Latin...

I.A.4.h Ijo

Ijo languages

Ijaw, also spelled Ịjọ, is the main subgroup of the Ijoid group of Niger–Congo languages. Ijaw languages are spoken in southern Nigeria by the Ijaw people....

I.A.5 Benue–Congo

I.A.5.A Plateau

Plateau languages

-Characteristics:Only some of the languages have nominal classes, as the Bantu languages have, where in others these have eroded. The large numbers of consonants in many languages is due to the erosion of noun-class prefixes....

I.A.5.A.1

I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe

I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama

Kurama language

The Kurama or Kurumi language, Tukurami, is a Kainji language of Nigeria with 40,000 speakers. Kurama speakers are found in the central northern Nigerian states of Kaduna and Kano....

, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa

I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo

I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten)

I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom

I.A.5.A.5 Eggon

Eggon language

Eggon is one of the Benue–Congo languages spoken in Nigeria.EggonTaken from the introduction to "A dictionary of Eggon", edited by Roger Blench...

, Nungu, Yeskwa

I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai

I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa

I.A.5.B Jukunoid

Jukunoid languages

The score of Jukunoid languages are spoken by the Jukun and related peoples of Nigeria and Cameroon.-Languages:Per Ethnologue 15, the internal classification of the languages is:*Bete, perhaps Lufu*Yukuben–Kuteb: Akum, Beezen, Kapya, Kuteb, Yukuben...

: Jukun

Jukun language

Jukun or Djugun is an Australian Aboriginal language of Western Australia. There are no longer any fluent speakers of Jukun, but some people may remember it to some degree....

, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu

I.A.5.C Cross-River

I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro

I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio

Ibibio language

Ibibio-Efik, also known as Ibibio and Efik, is the major dialect cluster of the Benue–Congo language family called Cross River. Efik proper has national status in Nigeria and is the literary standard of the Efik languages, though Ibibio proper has more native speakers.-Varieties:Efik is a dialect...

, Efik

Efik language

Efik , also known as Riverain Ibibio, is the native language of the Efik people of Nigeria, where it is a national language. It is the official language of the Cross River State in Nigeria.The name Efik is also used for Ibibio-Efik....

, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop

I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo

I.A.5.D Bantoid

Bantoid languages

In the classification of African languages, Bantoid is a branch of the Benue–Congo subfamily of the Niger–Congo phylum. The term 'Bantoid' was first used by Krause in 1895 for languages that showed resemblances in vocabulary to Bantu...

: Tiv

Tiv language

The Tiv language is spoken by over 2 million people in Nigeria, with a few speakers in Cameroon. Most of the Language's Nigerian speakers are found in Benue State of Nigeria. The language is also widely spoken in the Nigerian States of Plateau, Taraba, Nasarawa as well as the FCT Abuja...

, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila

Mambila language

Mambila is a Bantoid dialect chain stretching across Nigeria and Cameroon. Notable dialects are Barup, Bang, Dorofi, Gembu, Hainari, Kabri, Mayo Ndaga, Mbamnga, Tamien, Warwar ; Ju Ba, Sunu Torbi , Ju Naare , Langa...

, Bute, Bantu

I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern

I.A.6.A Adamawa

Adamawa languages

The Adamawa languages are a putative family of 80–90 languages scattered across the Adamawa Plateau in central Africa, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and Chad, spoken altogether by only one and a half million people . Joseph Greenberg classified them as one branch of the...

I.A.6.A.1 Tula

Tula

Tula may refer to:In geography:*Tula, Hidalgo, a town in Mexico, once the capital and sacred city of the Toltec people.*Tula, Tamaulipas, a place in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico*Tula River in central Mexico...

, Dadiya, Waja

Waja language

Waja, also known as Nyan Wiyau, Wiyaa, or Wuya, is one of the Savanna languages of eastern Nigeria. Dialectical differences between Deruwo and Waja proper are slight....

, Cham

Cham language

Cham is the language of the Cham people of Southeast Asia, and formerly the language of the kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam. A member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family, it is spoken by 100,000 people in Vietnam and up to 220,000 people in Cambodia . There are also...

, Kamu

I.A.6.A.2 Chamba

Chamba people

The Chamba people of Nigeria and Cameroon that speak two distantly related languages: Chamba Leko, of the Leko–Nimbari languages, and Chamba Daka, of the Dakoid languages...

, Donga

Donga

-Places in Africa:*Donga River, Nigeria and Cameroon*Donga Department, in Benin*Donga, Angola, a town*Donga, Nigeria, a town and Local Government Area in Taraba State-Persons:, Ernesto dos Santos, the first recorder of Brazilian samba...

, Lekon, Wom

Wom language (Nigeria)

Wom, or Perema, is a Leko language of Nigeria.Consonants are/ŋ/, and only /ŋ/, appears geminate. /ʔ/ is rare, perhaps borrowed. /h/ is known from one word, not borrowed.Vowels are .All may be doubled, but there are no long vowels...

, Mumbake

I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram

I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari

Sari

A sari or sareeThe name of the garment in various regional languages include: , , , , , , , , , , , , , is a strip of unstitched cloth, worn by females, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. It is popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal,...

, Sewe, Woko

WOKO

WOKO is an American radio station broadcasting a Country music format. Licensed to Burlington, Vermont, USA, the station serves the Burlington-Plattsburgh area...

, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru

I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye

Mumuye language

Mumuye is the most important of the Adamawa languages. It is currently classified in the Leko–Nimbari branch of Savanna languages, as Adamawa is no longer considered a valid family...

, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna

I.A.6.A.6

Mbum languages

The Mbum languages are a small group of the Mbum–Day branch of the erstwhile Adamawa languages, spoken in southern Chad, northwestern Central African Republic, northern Cameroon, and eastern Nigeria...

 Dama, Mono

Mono language (Congo)

Mono is a language spoken by about 65,000 people in the northwestern corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is one of the Banda languages, a subbranch of the Ubangian branch of the Niger–Congo languages...

, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum

Mbum language

The Mbum are considered the original population of the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. That said, some histories recall that there were a people already in the area when they arrived there centuries ago...

, Kpere, Lakka, Dek

I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba

I.A.6.A.8 Kam

I.A.6.A.9 Jen

Jen

Jen may refer to:*Ren , a.k.a. Jen, Confucian word for humaneness*Jennifer , diminutive form JenFamous people with this surname*Jen, common of surname Ren, Njim, Nham, Yam, Yum, Yim, Im...

, Munga

Munga

Munga is a locality situated in Västerås Municipality, Västmanland County, Sweden with 240 inhabitants in 2005....

I.A.6.A.10 Longuda

Longuda language

Longuda is a Niger–Congo language of Nigeria. Joseph Greenberg counted it as a distinct branch, G10, of his Adamawa family. Boyd assigned it a branch within Waja–Jen. When Blench broke up Adamawa, Longuda was made a branch of the Bambukic languages.The number of speakers is unknown...

I.A.6.A.11 Fali

Fali language

Fali is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Nigeria in Adamawa State in the Mubi and Michika LGAs. Dialects are Bween, Huli, Madzarin, and Vin.-External links:****...

I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari

Nimbari language

The Nimbari language was a member of the Leko–Nimbari group of Savanna languages. It was spoken in northern Cameroon.Nimbari was labeled "G12" in Joseph Greenberg's Adamawa language-family proposal....

I.A.6.A.13

Bua languages

The Bua languages are a subgroup of the Mbum–Day subgroup of the Savanna languages spoken by fewer than 30,000 people in southern Chad in an area stretching roughly between the Chari River and the Guera Massif. They were labeled "G13" in Joseph Greenberg's Adamawa language-family proposal...

 Bua

Bua language

The Bua language is spoken by some 7,708 people north of the Chari River around Korbol and Gabil in Chad. It is the largest member of the small Bua group of languages and is mutually comprehensible with Fanian.-External links:**...

, Nielim

Niellim language

The Niellim language is a Bua language spoken by some 5,000 people along the Chari River in southern Chad. It is mainly spoken in two areas: one around the city of Sarh and one, its traditional home, further north, between about 9°30′ and 9°50′ N, corresponding to the former chiefdoms of Pra,...

, Koke

I.A.6.A.14 Masa

I.A.6.B Eastern

I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya

Gbaya language

The Gbaya languages, or Gbaya–Manza–Ngbaka, are a group of perhaps a dozen Ubangian languages spoken mainly in the Central African Republic, and to a lesser extent in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon...

, Manja

Mandja

The Mandja are an ethnic group in the Central African Republic. They number approximately 250,000....

, Mbaka

I.A.6.B.2 Banda

Banda languages

Banda is a family of Ubangian languages spoken by the Banda people of Central Africa.-Languages:Olson classfies the Banda family as follows :*Central**Central Banda...

I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi

Ngbandi language

The Ngbandi language is a dialect continuum of the Ubangian family spoken by a half-million or so people in the Democratic Republic of Congo and in the Central African Republic...

, Sango

Sango language

Sango is the primary language spoken in the Central African Republic: it has approximately 1,600,000 second-language speakers, but only about 404,000 native speakers, mainly in the towns.- Classification :...

, Yakoma

I.A.6.B.4 Zande

Zande language

Zande is an Ubangian language spoken by the Azande, primarily in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and western South Sudan, but also in the eastern part of the Central African Republic.-External links:****...

, Nzakara

Nzakara language

Nzakara is an Ubangian language spoken in eastern Central African Republic, spilling over into the Democratic Republic of the Congo....

, Barambo, Pambia

I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu

Mündü language

Mündü is a Ubangian language of South Sudan, with a few thousand speakers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo....

, Mayogo, Bangba

I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo

Ndogo language

Ndogo is a Ubangian language, one of the nine major languages of South Sudan, and is taught in primary school. It is used as a secondary language by the Gollo and some of the Gbaya, among others....

, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere

Sere language

Sere is a minor Ubangian language of the Congo. The name is variously spelled Serre, Shaire, Shere, Sheri, Sili, Siri, French Chere, or prefixed as Basili, Basiri....

, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo

I.A.6.B.7 Amadi

Madi language (Sudan and Uganda)

The Ma'di language is a found in Uganda and South Sudan. . The Madi people refer to their language as Ma'di ti literally: Ma'di mouth....

 (Madyo, Ma)

I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga)

I.B Kordofanian

Kordofanian languages

The Kordofanian languages are a geographic grouping of three to five language families spoken in the Nuba Mountains of Kordofan Province, Sudan. In 1963 Joseph Greenberg added them to the Niger–Congo family, creating his Niger–Kordofanian proposal...

I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor

I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi

Tagoi language

The Tagoi language is a Kordofanian language, closely related to Tegali, spoken near the town of Rashad in southern Kordofan in Sudan, about 12 N, 31 E. Unlike Tegali, it has a complex noun class system, which appears to have been borrowed from more typical Niger–Congo languages...

, Tumale

I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira

I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo

Krongo language

Krongo, also spelled Korongo or Kurungu and known as Dimodongo, Kadumodi, or Tabanya after local towns, is a Kadu language spoken in Kordofan....

, Miri, Kadugli

Kadugli language

Kadugli, also Katcha-Kadugli-Miri or Central Kadu, is a Kadu language or dialect cluster spoken in Kordofan. Stevenson treats them as dialects of one language, and they share a single ISO code, though Schadeberg treats them as separate languages.There are five rather divergent dialects, on the...

, Katcha

I.B.5 Katla

Katla languages

-References:* Roger Blench. Unpublished. ....

: Katla, Tima

II. Nilo-Saharan

Nilo-Saharan languages

The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of African languages spoken by some 50 million people, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers , including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of Nile meet...

II.A Songhai

Songhay languages

The Songhay, Songhai, or Songai languages are a group of closely related languages/dialects centered on the middle stretches of the Niger River in the west African states of Mali, Niger, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria. They have been widely used as a lingua franca in that region ever since the...

II.B Saharan

II.B.a Kanuri

Kanuri language

Kanuri is a dialect continuum spoken by some four million people, as of 1987, in Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon, as well as small minorities in southern Libya and by a diaspora in Sudan. It belongs to the Western Saharan subphylum of Nilo-Saharan...

, Kanembu

II.B.b Teda, Daza

Daza language

Daza is an Afro-Asiatic language of unclear affiliation spoken in a few villages of Darazo LGA, Bauchi State, Nigeria....

II.B.c Zaghawa

Zaghawa language

The Zaghawa language is a Saharan language spoken by the Zaghawa people of eastern central Chad and northwestern Sudan ....

, Berti

II.C Maban

Maban languages

The Maban languages are a small family of languages which have also been included in the proposed Nilo-Saharan family. Maban is spoken in Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan , and South Sudan, and includes the following languages:...

: Maba, Runga, Mimi

Mimi language

Mimi is a name applied to several distinct and not particularly closely related Nilo-Saharan languages of the Wadai area of Chad, most commonly Amdang but also including two possibly Maban languages: Mimi of Nachtigal and Mimi of Decorse....

 (of Nachtigal), Mimi (of Gaudefroy-Demombynes)

II.D. Fur

Fur languages

The Fur or For languages constitute a small, closely related family which are a proposed member of the Nilo-Saharan family. Fur in western Sudan had 500,000 speakers in 1983 , and Amdang in eastern Chad had 5,000 speakers....

II.E. Chari–Nile

II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic

Eastern Sudanic languages

Ehret 2001 [1984]Ehret, published in 2001 but circulating in manuscript form since at least 1984, calls the family "Eastern Sahelian", and idiosyncratically adds the Kuliak languages and Berta, which Bender assigns to higher-level branches of Nilo-Saharan, and reassigns Nyima to the southern branch...

II.E.1.1 Nubian

Nubian languages

The Nubian language group, according to the most recent research by Bechhaus-Gerst comprises the following varieties:# Nobiin ....

II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (Mahas-Fadidja

Nobiin language

Nobiin is a Northern Nubian language of the Nilo-Saharan phylum. ‘Nobiin’ is the genitive form of Nòòbíí ‘Nubian" and literally means ‘ of the Nubians"...

 and Kenuzi-Dongola

Dongolawi language

Dongolawi, also known as Kenuzi-Dongola, is a Nubian language of Egypt and across the border in Sudan. Kenzi dialect is spoken north of Mahas in Egypt, while Dongolawi is spoken south of Mahas around Dongola; they are generally considered two varieties of one language...

)

II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr

II.E.1.1.c Midob

Midob language

Midob is the language of the Midob people in North Darfur. It is genetically part of the Nubian language family which is part of the Nilo-Saharan language phylum. Apart from their homeland, Midob speakers also live in the Khartoum area and Jezirat Aba...

II.E.1.1.d Birked

Birgid language

Birgid is an extinct Nubian language that was spoken in western Sudan. Thelwall mentions his last contact to old speakers of Birgid in 1972.-References:...

II.E.1.2

Surmic languages

The Surmic Languages are a branch of the Eastern Sudanic language family.-Languages:*North: Majang *South**Southeast: Kwegu , Me'en, Mursi, Suri...

 Murle

Murle language

Murle is a Nilo-Saharan Eastern Sudanic language spoken by the Murle people, spoken in the southeast of South Sudan, near the Ethiopian border...

 (Beir), Longarim, Didinga

Didinga language

The Didinga language is an Eastern Sudanic language spoken by the Chukudum and Lowudo peoples of the Didinga Hills of South Sudan. It is a member of the Surmic languages....

, Suri

Suri language

Suri is a Nilo-Saharan Eastern Sudanic language spoken in the Bench Maji Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region in Ethiopia, to the South Sudan border, and across the border in South Sudan by the Suri...

, Mekan, Murzu

Mursi language

Mursi is a Nilo-Saharan Eastern Sudanic language spoken by the Mursi people, in the Central Omo region of southwest Ethiopia. It is similar to Suri, spoken in most of the immediately surrounding area.-Bibliography:...

, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo

II.E.1.3 Barea

Nara language

The Nara or Barea language is a Nilo-Saharan language spoken chiefly in western Eritrea. The language is often confused with Kunama, which is at best only distantly related. According to Tsige Hailemichael, the "...Nara language is in danger of quickly disappearing." The name Barea is considered...

II.E.1.4

Eastern Jebel languages

The Eastern Jebel languages are a small subfamily belonging to the Eastern Sudanic subgroup of Nilo-Saharan. They are spoken in the hills of An Nil al Azraq province in eastern Sudan The group consists of:...

 Ingassana (Tabi)

Gaam language

The Gaam language, also known as Ingessana, Tabi, Kamanidi, or Mamedja/Mamidza, is an Eastern Sudanic language spoken by the Ingessana people in the Tabi Hills in eastern Sudan, near Ethiopia. It was considered an isolate within Eastern Sudanic until the other Eastern Jebel languages were...

II.E.1.5 Nyima

Nyimang language

Nyimang, also known as Ama, is an East Sudanic language spoken in the Nuba Mountains....

, Afitti

Afitti language

Dinik, also known as Afitti , is an East Sudanic language spoken in the Nuba Mountains....

II.E.1.6 Temein

Temein language

The Temein or Nuba Hills languages are a group of Eastern Sudanic languages spoken in Sudan.-Languages:The Temein languages are not closely related.*Temein *Doni *Tese...

, Teis-um-Danab

II.E.1.7

Taman languages

The Taman languages form a branch of the Eastern Sudanic language family. They are Tama and Sungor , spoken in Chad and Sudan, and Mararit, spoken only in Chad....

 Merarit

Mararit language

The Mararit language is a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in eastern Chad. language group of the Western branch of Nilo-Saharan. There are two dialects. One is called Mararit and the other is called Abou Charib. The majority speak the Abou Charid dialect of the language...

, Tama

Tama language

The Tama language is a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in western Sudan and eastern Chad. It is a member of the Taman language group of the Western branch of Nilo-Saharan.-External links:**...

, Sungor

Sungor language

The Sungor language is a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in western Sudan and eastern Chad. Primarily it is spoken in Chad. It is a member of the Taman language group of the Western branch of Nilo-Saharan. The majority of native speakers are Muslim and most use Chadian Arabic as a second...

II.E.1.8

Daju languages

The Daju languages are spoken in isolated pockets by the Daju people across a wide area of Sudan and Chad, in parts of the regions of Kordofan, Darfur, and Wadai. They belong to the Eastern Sudanic subfamily of Nilo-Saharan....

 Dagu of Darfur, Baygo

Beigo

Beigo is an extinct East Sudanic language once spoken in Sudan by the Baygo tribe, numbering some 850 in the late twentieth century...

, Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri

II.E.1.9 Nilotic

Nilotic languages

The Nilotic languages are a group of Eastern Sudanic languages spoken across a wide area between southern Sudan and Tanzania by the Nilotic peoples, particularly associated with cattle-herding...

II.E.1.9.a Western

Western Nilotic languages

The Western Nilotic languages are one of the three primary branches of the Nilotic languages, themselves belonging to the Eastern Sudanic subfamily of Nilo-Saharan...

II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun

II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk

Shilluk language

The Shilluk Language, or Chollo, is a Nilotic language spoken by the Shilluk people of South Sudan. It is closely related to Luo. Dhɔg Cɔllɔ is widely spoken throughout the Shilluk Kingdom and it is the official language of Shilluk and the residents in Shilluk Kingdom.-Written language:Tyɛlli...

, Anuak

Anuak language

Anuak or Anywa is a Nilotic language of the Nilo-Saharan language family. It is spoken primarily in the Western part of Ethiopia by the Anuak. Other names for this language include: Anyuak, Anywa, Yambo, Jambo, Yembo, Bar, Burjin, Miroy, Moojanga, Nuro.Anywa does not have phonemic fricatives.-...

, Acholi

Acholi language

Acholi is a language primarily spoken by the Acholi people in the districts of Gulu, Kitgum and Pader, a region known as Acholiland in northern Uganda. Acholi is also spoken in the southern part of the Opari District of South Sudan...

, Lango

Lango language (Uganda)

Lango is a Western Nilotic language of the Luo branch, spoken by the Langi people in Uganda. It is mostly spoken in Lango sub-region, in the Northern Region. Spoken by approximately 1.8 million speakers, it makes up for about five percent of the population of Uganda...

, Alur

Alur language

Alur is spoken in northwestern Uganda and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo by the Alur people.Dialects*Jokot*Jonam *Mambisa*Wanyoro- Phonetics :VowelsAlur has 9 vowels....

, Luo

Luo languages

The Nilotic Luo languages, or Lwoian, are a dozen languages spoken by the Luo peoples in an area ranging from southern Sudan via Uganda to southern Kenya, with Dholuo extending into northern Tanzania and Alur into the Democratic Republic of the Congo. They form one of the two branches of Western...

, Jur, Bor

II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka

Dinka language

This article is about the language, for the ethnic group see Dinka.Dinka, or , is a Nilotic dialect cluster spoken by the Dinka people, the major ethnic group of South Sudan. There are five main varieties, Ngok, Rek, Agaar, Twic / Tuic East, and Bor, which are distinct enough to require separate...

, Nuer

Nuer language

The Nuer language is a Nilo-Saharan language of the Western Nilotic group. It is spoken by the Nuer people of South Sudan and in western Ethiopia. Nuer is one of eastern and central Africa's most widely spoken languages. The Nuer nation is one of the largest in South Sudan.Nuer language has a...

II.E.1.9.b Eastern

Eastern Nilotic languages

The Eastern Nilotic languages are one of the three primary branches of the Nilotic languages, themselves belonging to the Eastern Sudanic subfamily of Nilo-Saharan; they are believed to have begun to diverge about 3,000 years ago, and have spread southwards from an original home in Equatoria in...

II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari

Bari language

Bari is the Nilotic language of the Karo people, spoken over large areas of Central Equatoria state in South Sudan, across the northwest corner of Uganda, and into the Democratic Republic of Congo....

, Fajulu, Kakwa, Mondari

II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie, Dodoth, Karamojong, Teso, Topotha, Turkana

Turkana language

Turkana is the language of the Turkana people of Kenya, numbering about 340,000.It is one of the Eastern Nilotic languages, and is closely related to Karamojong, Jie and Teso of Uganda, to Toposa spoken in the extreme southeast of Sudan, and to Nyangatom in the Sudan/Ethiopia Omo valley borderland;...

II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai

Maasai language

The Maasai language is an Eastern Nilotic language spoken in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania by the Maasai people, numbering about 800,000...

II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern

Southern Nilotic languages

The Southern Nilotic languages are spoken mainly in western Kenya and northern Tanzania . They are generally divided into two groups, Kalenjin and Omotik–Datooga, although there is some uncertainty as to the internal coherence of the Kalenjin branch...

: Nandi, Suk, Tatoga

Datooga language

The Datooga language is a Nilotic language, or actually a dialect cluster, of the Southern group. It is spoken by the Datooga people of the Great Rift Valley of Tanzania....

 (but text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c)

II.E.1.10

Kuliak languages

-References:* Heine, Bernd The Kuliak Languages of Eastern Uganda. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.* Ehret, Christopher "The classification of Kuliak", in ed. Thilo Schadeberg & Lionel Bender, Nilo-Saharan: Proceedings of the First Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, Leiden, September...

 Nyangiya, Teuso

Ik language

The Ik language, also known as Icetot, Icietot, Ngulak, or Teuso, Teuth, are one of the Kuliak languages of northeastern Uganda. The Ik people have a positive attitude toward their language, which is increasing; with Tepes being moribund, Ik may soon be the sole remaining language of its family....

II.E.2 Central Sudanic

Central Sudanic languages

Starostin notes that the poorly attested language Mimi of Decorse is suggestive of Central Sudanic, though he provisionally treats it as an isolate.-References:...

II.E.2.1 Bongo

Bongo language

Bongo, also spelled Bungu and known as Dor, is a Central Sudanic language spoken in sparsely populated areas of South Sudan. Dialectical differences are slight....

, Baka

Baka language

Baka is a dialect cluster of Ubangian languages spoken by the Baka Pygmies of Cameroon and Gabon...

, Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, Sara

Sara languages

The Sara languages comprise half a dozen Bongo–Bagirmi languages spoken mainly in southern Chad; a few are also spoken in the north of the Central African Republic. They are members of the Central Sudanic language family...

 dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, Bagirmi

Baguirmi language

Bagirmi is the language of the Baguirmi people of Chad, belonging to the Nilo-Saharan family. It is spoken by 44,761 people , mainly in the Chari-Baguirmi Prefecture...

, Kuka, Kenga, Disa, Bubalia

II.E.2.2 Kreish

II.E.2.3 Binga, Yulu

Yulu language

Yulu, also known as Binga, is the Central Sudanic language of the Yulu and Binga people.Ethnologue counts 4000 Yulu in CAR and 2000 in South Sudan and Darfur. The count 1000 Binga in South Sudan and note that they also live in DRC, but do not provide statistics....

, Kara

Kara language

Kara language may refer to:* Kara language * Kara language , spoken by the Kara people of Tanzania * Gaya language , possibly related to Japanese* Fer language, spoken in Central African Republic* Kara languages...

II.E.2.4 Moru

Moru language

Moru is a Central Sudanic language spoken in South Sudan by the Moru people. Dialects are Agi, Andri ~ ’Bali’ba, Kadiro = Lakama’di, Miza, Moruwa’di....

, Avukaya

Avokaya language

Avokaya is a Central Sudanic language spoken in southern South Sudan and parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Avokaya speakers occupy a contiguous area along both sides of the international boundary, with Maridi in South Sudan and Faradje in Congo as the main centres of the language...

, Logo, Keliko, Lugbara

Lugbara language

Lugbara is the language of the Lugbara people. It is spoken in the West Nile region in northwestern Uganda, as well as the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Orientale Province. Lugbara was first written by Christian missionaries in 1918, based on the Ayivu dialect...

, Madi

Madi language (Sudan and Uganda)

The Ma'di language is a found in Uganda and South Sudan. . The Madi people refer to their language as Ma'di ti literally: Ma'di mouth....

II.E.2.5 Mangbetu

Mangbetu language

Mangbetu, or Nemangbetu, is one of the most populous of the Central Sudanic languages. It is spoken by the Mangbetu people of northeastern Congo. It, or its speakers, are also known as Amangbetu, Kingbetu, Mambetto. The most populous dialect, and the one most widely understood, is called Medje....

, Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua

II.E.2.6 Mangbutu

Mangbutu language

Mangbutu is a Central Sudanic language of northeastern Congo. It, or its speakers, are also known as Mangu-Ngutu, Mombuttu, Wambutu. The 1200 Andinai are separated from other Mangbutu speakers by Lese; they speak a distinct dialect, as do the Andali tribe ....

, Mamvu

Mamvu language

Mamvu is a Central Sudanic language of northeastern Congo. It is quite similar to Lese....

, Lese

Lese language

Lese, or occasionally Lissi, also known as Efe, is a Central Sudanic language of northeastern Congo. The Lese people live in association with the Efé Pygmies, and share one language....

, Mvuba, Efe

II.E.2.7 Lendu

II.E.3 Berta

Berta language

Berta, Wetawit, is spoken by the Berta in Sudan and Ethiopia. It is a language isolate which has been also included as branch of the proposed Nilo-Saharan language family. It has the typical word order subject–verb–object. It is a tonal language. It has significantly influenced some of the...

II.E.4 Kunama

Kunama language

The Kunama language is a language isolate which has been included in the proposed Nilo-Saharan language family. Kunama spoken by the Kunama people of western Eritrea and just across the Ethiopian border. The language has several dialects including: Barka. Marda, Aimara, Odasa, Tika, Lakatakura,...

II.F Koman/Coman: Komo

Komo language

The Komo language is a Nilo-Saharan language spoken by the Komo people of Ethiopia, Sudan and Southern Sudan. It is a member of the Koman languages. The language is also called Madiin, Koma, South Koma, Central Koma and Hayahaya.- Further reading :...

, Ganza

Ganza language

Ganza is an Afro-Asiatic language , spoken in the western Oromo region of Ethiopia, near the border of Sudan. The Ganza people may originally have been from Sudan....

, Uduk

Uduk language

Uduk, also known as Tw'ampa, is a Koman language spoken in the Gambela region in western Ethiopia, and across the border in the Upper Nile state of South Sudan. It is spoken by approximately 20,000 people in Ethiopia; the number of speakers in South Sudan is unknown...

, Gule

Gule language

Gule, also known as Anej, Fecakomodiyo, and Hamej, is an extinct Koman language of Sudan....

, Gumuz

Gumuz language

Gumuz is a dialect cluster spoken along the border of Ethiopia and Sudan. Most Ethiopian speakers live in the Metekel Zone of the Benishangul-Gumuz Region, although a group of 1,000 live outside the town of Welkite...

, Mao

III. Afroasiatic

III.A Semitic

Semitic languages

The Semitic languages are a group of related languages whose living representatives are spoken by more than 270 million people across much of the Middle East, North Africa and the Horn of Africa...

III.B Egyptian

III.C Berber

Berber languages

The Berber languages are a family of languages indigenous to North Africa, spoken from Siwa Oasis in Egypt to Morocco , and south to the countries of the Sahara Desert...

III.D Cushitic

Cushitic languages

The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family spoken in the Horn of Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Sudan and Egypt. They are named after the Biblical character Cush, who was identified as an ancestor of the speakers of these specific languages as early as AD 947...

III.D.1 Northern Cushitic

Beja language

Beja or North Cushitic is an Afro-Asiatic language of the southern coast of the Red Sea, spoken by about two million nomads, the Beja, in parts of Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea.-Classification:...

: Beja

Beja language

Beja or North Cushitic is an Afro-Asiatic language of the southern coast of the Red Sea, spoken by about two million nomads, the Beja, in parts of Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea.-Classification:...

 (Bedauye)

III.D.2 Central Cushitic

Central Cushitic languages

The Central Cushitic, or Agaw, languages are spoken by small groups in Ethiopia and, in one case, Eritrea. They form the main substratum influence on Amharic and other Ethiopian Semitic languages.-Classification:...

: Bogo (Bilin)

Blin language

The Blin language , Bilin or Bilen has approximately 70,000 speakers in and around the city of Keren in Eritrea. It is the only Central Cushitic language which is spoken in Eritrea....

, Kamir, Khamta

Xamtanga language

Xamtanga is a Central Cushitic language spoken in Ethiopia by the Xamir people.-Vowels:The central vowels have fronted and backed allophones, depending on the adjacent consonant.-Consonants:...

, Awiya

Awngi language

The Awngi language, in older publications also called Awiya , is a Central Cushitic language spoken by the Awi people, living in Central Gojjam in northwestern Ethiopia...

, Damot, Kemant

Qimant language

The Qimant language is a highly endangered language spoken by a small and elderly fraction of the Qemant people in Northern Ethiopia mainly in Chilga Woreda in Semien Gondar Zone between Gondar and Metemma.-Classification:...

, Kayla

Kayla language

Kayla, or Kayliñña is one of two Agaw dialects formerly spoken by a subgroup of the Beta Israel . It is a dialect of Qimant. The name Kayla is sometimes also used as a cover term for both Beta Israel dialects...

, Quara

Qwara language

Qwara, or Qwareña , is one of two Agaw dialects formerly spoken by a subgroup of the Beta Israel of the Qwara area. It is a dialect of Qimant....

III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic

East Cushitic languages

The Lowland East Cushitic languages comprise two dozen languages of the Cushitic family within Afro-Asiatic. They are spoken mainly in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, and by Cushitic groups in northern Kenya....

: Saho

Saho language

The Saho language is a Cushitic language of Eritrea and Ethiopia.-Overview:It is spoken natively by the Saho people who traditionally inhabit territory in Eritrea bounded by the bay of Arafali in the east, the Laasi Ghedé valleys in the south, and the Eritrea highlands to the west .This speech area...

-Afar

Afar language

Afar is a Lowland East Cushitic language spoken in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. It is believed to have 1.5 million speakers, the Afar. The basic word order in Afar, like in other East Cushitic languages, is subject–object–verb. Its speakers have a literacy rate of between one and three per cent...

, Somali

Somali language

The Somali language is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Its nearest relatives are Afar and Oromo. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages, with academic studies beginning before 1900....

, Galla

Oromo language

Oromo, also known as Afaan Oromo, Oromiffa, Afan Boran, Afan Orma, and sometimes in other languages by variant spellings of these names , is an Afro-Asiatic language, and the most widely spoken of the Cushitic family. Forms of Oromo are spoken as a first language by more than 25 million Oromo and...

, Konso

Konso language

The Konso language is an East Cushitic language spoken in southwest Ethiopia. Native speakers of Konso number about 200,000...

, Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, Arbore

Arbore language

Arbore is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in southern Ethiopia in a few settlements of Hamer Bena woreda near Lake Chew Bahir.-Further reading:...

), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, Burji

Burji language

Burji language is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken by the Burji people who reside in Ethiopia south of Lake Chamo. There are over 46,000 speakers in Ethiopia, and a further 10,400 speakers in Kenya...

, Sidamo

Sidamo language

Sidamo is an Afro-Asiatic language, belonging to the Cushitic branch, part of the Highland East Cushitic group. It is spoken in parts of southern Ethiopia....

, Darasa

Dirasha language

Dirasha is a member of the East Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. It is spoken in Ethiopia in the Omo Region, in the hills west of Lake Chamo, around Gidole town. A number of speakers also use Oromo or Komso...

, Kambata

Kambaata language

Kambaata is a Highland East Cushitic language, part of the larger Afro-Asiatic family and spoken by the Kambaata. Dialects are Donga, Kambaata and Tambaro. It is one of the official languages of Ethiopia. The language has a large number of verbal affixes. When these are affixed to verbal roots,...

, Alaba, Hadya, Tambaro, Mogogodo

Yaaku language

Yaaku is an endangered Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Kenya. It is Cushitic, but its position within that family in unclear...

 (added 1966)

III.D.4 Western Cushitic

Omotic languages

The Omotic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic family spoken in southwestern Ethiopia. The Ge'ez alphabet is used to write some Omotic languages, the Roman alphabet for some others. They are fairly agglutinative, and have complex tonal systems .-Language list:The North and South Omotic...

: Janjero

Yemsa language

Yemsa is the language of the Yem people of the former Kingdom of Yamma, known as Kingdom of Janjero to the Amhara. It is a member of the Omotic group of languages, most closely related to Kaffa. It is distinctive in having a several levels of lexicon contingent on social hierarchy, rather like...

, Wolamo, Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, Gimira

Bench language

Bench is a Northern Omotic language of the "Gimojan" subgroup, spoken by about 174,000 people in the Bench Maji Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region, in southern Ethiopia, around the towns of Mizan Teferi and Shewa Gimira...

, Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, Maji, Kafa, Garo, Mocha, Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, Dime

Dime language

Dime is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in the northern part of the Selamago district in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region of Ethiopia, around Mount Smith. Dime divides into at least two dialects, which include Us'a and Gerfa. It has six case suffixes, in addition to an...

, Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo

III.D.5 Southern Cushitic

South Cushitic languages

The South Cushitic or Rift languages of Tanzania belong to the Afro-Asiatic family. The most numerous is Iraqw, with half a million speakers.-Classification:...

: Burungi

Burunge language

Burunge is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Tanzania in the Dodoma Region.- References :* * Roland Kiessling. 2000. Eine Grammatik des Burunge. Afrikanistische Forschungen Band 13. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag....

 (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), Iraqw

Iraqw language

Not to be confused with Iroquois language.Iraqw is a Cushitic language spoken in Tanzania in the Arusha and Manyara Regions. It is expanding in numbers, as the Iraqw people absorb neighboring ethnic groups. The language has a large number of Datooga loanwords, especially in poetic language...

, Mbugu

Mbugu language

Mbugu, or Ma’a, is a mixed language of Tanzania.The Mbugu speak two divergent registers. One consists of an inherited South Cushitic vocabulary with Bantu morphology similar to that of Shambala and Pare. The other register is Bantu, with vocabulary closely related to Pare.-References:* Mous,...

, Sanye

Dahalo language

Dahalo is an endangered South Cushitic language spoken by at most 400 people on the Kenyan coast near the mouth of the Tana River. The Dahalo, former elephant hunters, are dispersed among Swahili and other Bantu peoples, with no villages of their own, and are bilingual in those languages...

, Ngomvia (added 1966)

III.E Chad

Chadic languages

The Chadic languages constitute a language family of perhaps 200 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic and Cameroon, belonging to the Afroasiatic phylum...

III.E.1

III.E.1.a Hausa

Hausa language

Hausa is the Chadic language with the largest number of speakers, spoken as a first language by about 25 million people, and as a second language by about 18 million more, an approximate total of 43 million people...

, Gwandara

III.E.1.b Ngizim

Ngizim language

Ngizim is an Chadic language spoken by the Ngizim people in Yobe State, Nigeria.-Further reading:* Mohammed Alhaji Adamu, Usman Babayo Garba Potiskum, 2009, , Yobe Language Research Project....

, Mober, Auyokawa, Shirawa, Bede

Bade language

Bade is a West Chadic language spoken by the Bade people in Yobe State and Jigawa State, Nigeria. Their traditional ruler is the Emir of Bade....

III.E.1.c

III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa

III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Seiyawa, Barawa of Dass

III.E.1.d

III.E.1.d.i Bolewa, Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), Tangale, Pia, Pero, Chongee, Maha (added 1966)

III.E.1.d.ii Angas, Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka

III.E.1.d.iii Ron

Ron language

Ron is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Plateau State, Nigeria. Dialects include Bokkos, Daffo-Butura, Monguna.-References:*...

III.E.2 Kotoko group: Logone, Ngala, Buduma

Buduma language

Buduma is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in western Chad and neighboring Cameroon and Nigeria.- References :*...

, Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri

III.E.3 Bata–Margi group

III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, Margi

Margi language

Margi, also known as Marghi and Marghi Central, is a Chadic language spoken in Nigeria. It is perhaps the best described of the Biu–Mandara branch of that family. Marghi South and Patai are closely related, and sometimes considered dialects of Margi....

, Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo

III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, Tera

Tera language

-External links:*...

, Jera, Hinna (Hina)

III.E.4

III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar

III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, Mofu, Matakam

III.E.5 Gidder

III.E.6 Mandara

Mandara language

Mandara is an Austronesian language spoken on the Tabar Group of islands, New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea. Three dialects have been identified, Simberi, Tatau and Tabar, corresponding to the three main islands in the group....

, Gamergu

III.E.7 Musgu

III.E.8 Bana, Banana (Masa), Lame, Kulung

III.E.9

III.E.9.a Somrai

Somrai language

Somrai, also known as Sounrai, Shibne, Somrei, Sibine, Somre, Sumrai, Soumray, and Soumrai, is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in the southwestern Chadian prefectures of Tandjilé and Lai...

, Tumak

Tumak language

Tumak, also known as Toumak, Tumag, Tummok, Sara Toumak, Tumac, and Dije, is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in the southwestern Chadian prefectures of Moyen-Chari and Koumra. The two dialects, Motun and Tumak, have a lexical similarity of 71%...

, Ndam

Ndam language

Ndam, also known as Dam and Ndamm, is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in the southwestern Chadian prefectures of Tandjilé and Lai. Most of the speakers generally practice traditional religions, Islam, or Christianity. There are two dialects of Ndam—northern and southern,...

, Miltu

Miltu language

Miltu is an endangered Afro-Asiatic language spoken in southwestern Chad. Speakers are shifting to Bagirmi - References :* **...

, Sarwa, Gulei

III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire

III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein

III.E.9.d Modgel

III.E.9.e Tuburi

III.E.9.f Mubi

Mubi language

Mubi is an Afro-Asiatic language spoken in central Chad.-External links:**...

, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid)

IV Khoisan

Khoisan languages

The Khoisan languages are the click languages of Africa which do not belong to other language families. They include languages indigenous to southern and eastern Africa, though some, such as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion...

IV.A South African Khoisan

IV.A.1 Northern South African Khoisan

IV.A.2 Central South African Khoisan

IV.A.3 Southern South African Khoisan

IV.B Sandawe

Sandawe language

Sandawe or Sandawi is a tonal language spoken by about 40,000 Sandawe people in the Dodoma region of Tanzania. Language use is vigorous among both adults and children, with people in some areas monolingual. Sandawe had generally been classified as a member of the defunct Khoisan family since Albert...

IV.C Hatsa

Hadza language

Hadza is a language isolate spoken by fewer than a thousand Hadza people along the shores of Lake Eyasi in Tanzania, the last full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa. Despite the small number of speakers, language use is vigorous, with most children learning it...