The Royal Institute of Thailand
Encyclopedia
The Royal Institute of Thailand (Thai:
Thai alphabet
Thai script , is used to write the Thai language and other, minority, languages in Thailand. It has forty-four consonants , fifteen vowel symbols that combine into at least twenty-eight vowel forms, and four tone marks ....

 ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน; RTGS:
Royal Thai General System of Transcription
The Royal Thai General System of Transcription is the official system for rendering Thai language words in the Latin alphabet, published by the Royal Institute of Thailand...

 Ratchabandittayasathan, râːtʃabandìtajásatʰǎːn; literally: Institute of His Majesty's Pandits), or RIT in brief, is a Thai
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...

 public agency
Government agency
A government or state agency is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the machinery of government that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions, such as an intelligence agency. There is a notable variety of agency types...

 called otherwise but having the status equivalent to an independent Department
Ministry (government department)
A ministry is a specialised organisation responsible for a sector of government public administration, sometimes led by a minister or a senior public servant, that can have responsibility for one or more departments, agencies, bureaus, commissions or other smaller executive, advisory, managerial or...

 which is not subsidiary to any other agency but comes under the direct supervision of the Prime Minister of Thailand
Prime Minister of Thailand
The Prime Minister of Thailand is the head of government of Thailand. The Prime Minister is also the chairman of the Cabinet of Thailand. The post has existed since the Revolution of 1932, when the country became a constitutional monarchy....

.

The Royal Institute of Thailand has the missions to undertake and encourage research in every branch of knowledge beneficial to the nation and the people; to maintain relations and to exchange knowledge and information in all branches of knowledge with other learned institutes in Thailand and in other countries and to give instructions concerning academic matters to the Council of Ministers as well as to the public agency
Government agency
A government or state agency is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the machinery of government that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions, such as an intelligence agency. There is a notable variety of agency types...

, state enterprise or any other persons as deemed appropriate.

It is most widely known for its work in language planning
Language planning
Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of languages or language variety within a speech community. It is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots...

 and regulation, and for its many publications, particularly the Royal Institute Dictionary.

Location

On August 21, 2006, the Royal Institute relocated to offices at Sanam Suea Pa, near the Royal Plaza in Bangkok. Previously the Royal Institute was located in the Grand Palace complex, Na Phra Lan Road, Bangkok.

History

The Royal Institute was established on March 31, 1933, superseding the existent Royal Council (Thai:
Thai language
Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

 ราชบัณฑิตยสภา; RTGS:
Royal Thai General System of Transcription
The Royal Thai General System of Transcription is the official system for rendering Thai language words in the Latin alphabet, published by the Royal Institute of Thailand...

 Ratchabandittayasapha; literally: Council of Royal Pundits).

Administration

For administrative purposes, the Royal Institute has four divisions:
The Office of the Secretary
The Moral and Political Sciences Division
The Science Division
The Arts Division


The Royal Institute website states that each division has a staff of civil servants and clerical employees who perform both business and academic functions facilitating the works of Fellows and Associate Fellows as well as conducting and promoting various academic activities.

Fellows

Scholars from the academic community of Thailand can apply for membership in the Royal Institute. Acceptance is based on an applicant's contributions to his field and his published works. The levels of membership in the Royal Institute are:
1. Honorary Fellows (Thai
Thai language
Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

 ราชบัณฑิตกิตติมศักดิ์)
2. Fellows (Thai
Thai language
Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

 ราชบัณฑิต)
3. Associate Fellows (Thai
Thai language
Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

 ภาคีสมาชิก)

Of these, only the title of Associate Fellow can be applied for. Fellows are appointed by Royal Decree as senior experts in the Royal Institute within their field, chosen from among the existing Associate Fellows. Honorary Fellows are likewise appointed by Royal Decree, and are chosen from among scholars who are not already fellows of the Royal Institute. These three groups can be collectively referred to as the fellows, or members, of the Royal Institute.

Academies

Fellows of the Royal Institute are divided into three academies. Each academy is subdivided into branches, and each branch comprises several specific fields, in total 65 different academic disciplines.

The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences

  • Social Science
    • Jurisprudence
      Jurisprudence
      Jurisprudence is the theory and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal theorists , hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions...

    • Political Science
      Political science
      Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...

       and Public Administration
      Public administration
      Public Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal.....

    • Sociology
      Sociology
      Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...

       and Anthropology
      Anthropology
      Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...

    • Psychology
      Psychology
      Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...

    • Social Work
      Social work
      Social Work is a professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted with poverty or any real or...

       and Social Welfare
    • Economics
      Economics
      Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...

    • Business Administration
    • Geography
      Geography
      Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...

    • Education
      Education
      Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...

    • Communication
      Communication
      Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...

      s
  • Philosophy
    Philosophy
    Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...

    • Metaphysics
      Metaphysics
      Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:...

       and Epistemology
    • Axiology
      Axiology
      Axiology is the philosophical study of value. It is either the collective term for ethics and aesthetics—philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value—or the foundation for these fields, and thus similar to value theory and meta-ethics...

    • Logic
      Logic
      In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...

    • Theology
      Theology
      Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...


    • History
      History
      History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...

      • World History
        World History
        World History, Global History or Transnational history is a field of historical study that emerged as a distinct academic field in the 1980s. It examines history from a global perspective...

      • Thai History
        History of Thailand
        Tai peoples who originally lived in southwestern China, migrated into mainland Southeast Asia over a period of many centuries. The oldest known mention of their existence in the region by the exonym Siamese is in a twelfth-century A.D. inscription at the Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat in...

      • Archaeology
        Archaeology
        Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...


    The Academy of Science

    • Physical Science
      Physical science
      Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences...

      • Mathematics
        Mathematics
        Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...

      • Chemistry
        Chemistry
        Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....

      • Astronomy
        Astronomy
        Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...

      • Geology
        Geology
        Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...

      • Physics
        Physics
        Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...

      • Computer Science
        Computer science
        Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems...

      • Oceanography
        Oceanography
        Oceanography , also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean...

      • Meteorology
        Meteorology
        Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries...


    • Biological Science
      Biology
      Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...

      • Biology
        Biology
        Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...

      • Botany
        Botany
        Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Traditionally, botany also included the study of fungi, algae and viruses...

      • Zoology
        Zoology
        Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...


    • Technology
      Technology
      Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...

      • Biotechnology
        Biotechnology
        Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...

      • Polymers
      • Petrochemicals
      • Technological Administration
  • Applied Science
    Applied science
    Applied science is the application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Examples include testing a theoretical model through the use of formal science or solving a practical problem through the use of natural science....

    • Fishery
      Fishery
      Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,...

    • Agriculture
      Agriculture
      Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...

    • Forestry
      Forestry
      Forestry is the interdisciplinary profession embracing the science, art, and craft of creating, managing, using, and conserving forests and associated resources in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human benefit. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands...

    • Engineering
      Engineering
      Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...

    • Agronomy
      Agronomy
      Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation. Agronomy encompasses work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is the application of a combination of sciences like biology,...

    • Zoography
    • Veterinary Science

    • Health Science
      • Medicine
        Medicine
        Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....

      • Medical Science
      • Pharmacy
        Pharmacy
        Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs...

      • Dentistry
        Dentistry
        Dentistry is the branch of medicine that is involved in the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry is widely considered...


    The Academy of Arts

    • Language Arts
      Language arts
      Traditionally, the primary divisions in the language arts are Literature and Language, where language in this case refers to both linguistics, and specific languages....

      • Classical Languages
        Classical language
        A classical language is a language with a literature that is classical. According to UC Berkeley linguist George L. Hart, it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own, not as an offshoot of another tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich...

      • Philology
        Philology
        Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Classical philology is the philology of Greek and Classical Latin...

      • Linguistics
        Linguistics
        Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....

      • Local Literature
      • Prose
        Prose
        Prose is the most typical form of written language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure...

      • Poetry
        Poetry
        Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...

      • Comparative Literature
        Comparative literature
        Comparative literature is an academic field dealing with the literature of two or more different linguistic, cultural or national groups...

      • Thai Language
        Thai language
        Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

      • Foreign Languages

    • Architectural Arts
      Architecture
      Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art...

      • Architecture
        Architecture
        Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art...

      • Landscape Architecture
        Landscape architecture
        Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions...

      • Naval Architecture
        Naval architecture
        Naval architecture is an engineering discipline dealing with the design, construction, maintenance and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation and calculations during all stages of the life of a...

      • City Planning
  • Fine Arts
    • Painting
      Painting
      Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface . The application of the medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush but other objects can be used. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. However, painting is...

    • Sculpture
      Sculpture
      Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials—typically stone such as marble—or metal, glass, or wood. Softer materials can also be used, such as clay, textiles, plastics, polymers and softer metals...

    • Theatre
      Theatre
      Theatre is a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music or dance...

    • Graphic Design
      Graphic design
      Graphic design is a creative process – most often involving a client and a designer and usually completed in conjunction with producers of form – undertaken in order to convey a specific message to a targeted audience...

    • Mixed Media
      Mixed media
      Mixed media, in visual art, refers to an artwork in the making of which more than one medium has been employed.There is an important distinction between "mixed-media" artworks and "multimedia art". Mixed media tends to refer to a work of visual art that combines various traditionally distinct...


    • Applied Art
      Applied art
      Applied art is the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. Whereas fine arts serve as intellectual stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or...

      s
      • Interior Design
        Interior design
        Interior design describes a group of various yet related projects that involve turning an interior space into an effective setting for the range of human activities are to take place there. An interior designer is someone who conducts such projects...

      • Industrial Art
        Industrial design
        Industrial design is the use of a combination of applied art and applied science to improve the aesthetics, ergonomics, and usability of a product, but it may also be used to improve the product's marketability and production...

      • Minor Art

    The Royal Institute Dictionary

    Perhaps the most well-known work of the Royal Institute is the Royal Institute Dictionary (พจนานุกรม ฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, in English often abbreviated RID). The Royal Institute has published three fully revised editions of the dictionary, and many intermittent reprintings with minor revisions. Each of the major revisions is associated with a significant year in Thai history, although in the case of the 1999 Edition, the actual publication date is a later year.

    The methodology of the Dictionary Revision Committee of the Royal Institute has remained virtually unchanged for more than 70 years. The Royal Institute Dictionary is produced by a relatively small committee of experienced Thai scholars, convening at least once per week and working through the previous edition of the dictionary alphabetically, reviewing it entry by entry and sense by sense, suggesting new senses and entries as the work proceeds. Once the end of the alphabet is reached, a new edition of the RID is prepared for publication.

    1950 edition

    The 1950 edition of the Royal Institute Dictionary was first published in 1950. Although it is the first dictionary published by the Royal Institute, it is a revision of an earlier dictionary published by the Thai government in 1927.

    Work commenced on what would become RID 1950 in 1932, when the duty of producing the official governmental dictionary still belonged to the Ministry of Education (then known as Krom Thammakan). This task was transferred to the Royal Institute in 1934, although the actual committee carried on as before, both in membership and methodology. From start to finish, the first meeting of the Dictionary Revision Committee was held on October 5, 1932, and the committee met for the final time before publication on March 8, 1950, having convened a total of 1,299 meetings over the course of over seventeen years. Meetings were held only once weekly until 1942, after which the committee met two days per week. In 1949, as the dictionary neared completion, the committee met three times per week. The original committee consisted of seven members in 1932, and at publication in 1950 had fifteen members. Two of the original seven committee members, as well as one later member, died before the work of revision was completed.

    RID 1950 remained the standard dictionary of Thai for more than 30 years, with 20 printings totalling 187,000 copies.

    1982 edition

    The 1982 edition of the Royal Institute Dictionary was first published in 1982, in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the establishment of Bangkok
    Bangkok
    Bangkok is the capital and largest urban area city in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep , meaning "city of angels." The full name of Bangkok is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom...

     as the capital of Thailand by King Rama I.

    In 1976, Prime Minister Tanin Kraivixien
    Tanin Kraivixien
    Tanin Kraivixien or Thanin Kraivixien was the prime minister of Thailand between 1976 and 1977. Tanin is a son of Hae and Pa-ob Kraivixien, and is of Chinese-Thai descent. Tanin studied law at Thammasat University, graduating in 1948. He then went to the London School of Economics to continue with...

     ordered a revision of RID 1950, as part of an increased effort to promote knowledge of the standard language among Thai citizens. His charge included the task of updating the dictionary to include new words that had become standard, particularly terms coined by the Royal Institute that had gained widespread use, as well as to include in this revised dictionary those words which were overlooked or otherwise omitted in the previous edition. The motion to have the Royal Institute finally produce an "unabridged dictionary" was presented by Tanin at the cabinet meeting of December 28, 1976 and was accepted. Work was officially ordered the following day, with the charge to complete the new dictionary within one year.

    At the end of the first year, the Dictionary Revision Committee requested an extension of another year, citing great interest from both other government bodies as well as the general public, so as to be able to process the many requests and suggestions received. After the second year had passed, a seven-month extension was requested and granted, followed by a three-month request, after which the revision was completed. In total, the committee met 280 times, first on February 22, 1977, and finally on December 27, 1979.

    RID 1982 remained the standard dictionary of Thai for more than 20 years, with 6 printings totally 280,000 copies.

    In 1996, in collaboration with National Electronics and Computer Technology Center
    Thailand National Electronics and Computer Technology Center
    Thailand's National Electronics and Computer Technology Center is a statutory government organization under the National Science and Technology Development Agency , Ministry of Science and Technology...

     (NECTEC), RID 1982 was also produced in a limited edition CD-ROM version to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the reign of King Bhumibol. Twelve-thousand discs were made, of which 8,000 were distributed to schools throughout the country, and the remainder were given away to interested persons upon request.

    The sixth and final printing of 60,000 copies in 1996 was expected to be sufficient until the completion of RID 1999, but as it proved not to be, and with the supply of the CD-ROM edition similarly exhausted, the Royal Institute decided to meet the demand by creating an internet edition of RID 1982. It was online from 1996 until 2007, when it was supplanted by an online version of RID 1999.

    1999 edition

    The 1999 edition of the Royal Institute Dictionary was first published in 2003. It is called the 1999 Edition to commemorate the sixth cycle (72nd) birthday of Bhumibol Adulyadej
    Bhumibol Adulyadej
    Bhumibol Adulyadej is the current King of Thailand. He is known as Rama IX...

     in that year.

    RID 1999 remains the current standard dictionary of Thai, having been printed just once in a massive run of 200,000 copies.

    In mid-2007, the Institute made available an online version of RID 1999.

    Royal Thai General System of Transcription

    The Royal Institute publishes the Royal Thai General System of Transcription
    Royal Thai General System of Transcription
    The Royal Thai General System of Transcription is the official system for rendering Thai language words in the Latin alphabet, published by the Royal Institute of Thailand...

    or RTGS, the official way of transcribing Thai into the Latin alphabet.

    External links

    The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
     
    x
    OK