Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9, 1918)
Encyclopedia
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty
signed on March 3, 1918 between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers
, but prior to that on February 9, 1918, the Central Powers
signed an exclusive protectorate treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic
as part of the negotiations that took place in Brest-Litovsk, Minsk Governorate
(now Brest, Belarus
) recognizing the sovereignty of the republic. Although not formally annexing the territory of the former Russian Empire, the Germany
and Austria-Hungary
secured a food supply support in return for the military protection.
Because of the civil unrest in the Russian Republic culminating in the October Revolution
the Ukrainian People's Republic
declared its wider autonomy under the government of the General Secretariat of Ukraine
. In its declaration the General Secretariat announced the elections for the Ukrainian Constituent Assembly to be held on January 9, 1918 and the first convocation on January 22 of the same year.
On December 17, 1917 Vladimir Lenin
as the head of the Sovnarkom released an ultimatum in which he was accusing the Central Rada of disorganizing the frontlines, stopping "any troops going into the region of the Don, the Urals, or elsewhere", sheltering political enemies such as the members of the Cadet party and ones who sided with Kaledine, as well as obligating to "put an end to the attempts to crush the armies of the Soviet and of the Red Guard in the Ukraine". Lenin gave a 24 hours notice to the government of what he called "the independent and bourgeois Republic of the Ukraine" to respond. Having Soviet armies already in Ukraine, the government of Ukraine had to act quickly to preserve the sovereignty of the state.
The Ukrainian Central Rada expressed desire for peace treaty with foreign countries and its recognition worldwide. Since the representatives of the Britain and French Empires did not wish to recognize its sovereignty considering it as a part of their major ally, the Russian Empire, the treaty was giving a chance for some recognition in face of the Central Powers.
On January 1, 1918 a Ukrainian delegation headed by Vsevolod Holubovych
arrived at Brest-Litovsk. The initial delegation beside Liubynsky, Sevriuk, and Levytsky included Mykhailo Poloz.
on December 3, 1917 represented by the delegation headed by the Ukrainian-born Leon Trotsky
. Several resolutions were reached between December 22–26 and on December 28, 1917 an armistice
was signed suspending hostilities at front-lines. Prior to that a Soviet government of Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was formed in Kharkiv
on December 17, 1917. The final undersigning was being procrastinated by Bolshevik
s in hope to reach some agreement with the Entente
treaty members.
On January 12, Count Ottokar Czernin as a representative of the Central Powers recognized the independent delegation from the Ukrainian People's Republic
, but together with Csáky refused to discuss the questions of the Halychyna
, Bucovina, Subcarpathian Rus. They agreed that the Kholm Governorate
and the region of Podlachia were part of the Ukrainian People's Republic
. The Russian Bolshevik delegation, headed by Leon Trotsky
, had at first also recognized the independent Ukrainian delegation on January 10.
The Ukrainian delegation returned on January 20, 1918 to Kiev
, where the Tsentralna Rada
proclaimed a fully sovereign Ukrainian state on January 25 (dated January 22). Right after this a new Ukrainian delegation was sent to Brest headed now by Oleksandr Sevriuk. Meanwhile, Bolshevik revolts occurred in different cities
in Ukraine, which more or less forced the Ukrainian People's Republic – which was lacking organized military forces – to seek foreign aid. However, the situation for the Central Powers was also critical, especially for Austria-Hungary
, which suffered severe food shortages. On February 1, plenary session of the Congress was attended also by the Soviet government of Ukraine in the face of Yukhym Medvediev and Vasyl' Shakhrai
. Nevertheless, the Central Powers continued to negotiate with the delegation from the Ukrainian People's Republic as the sole representatives of Ukraine. While the Tsentralna Rada was abandoning Kiev for Bolshevik troops, a peace treaty was signed in Brest-Litovsk during the night of February 9–10 over the Bolshevik
s protests.
Oleksandr Sevriuk (head of delegation), Mykola Liubynsky (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Mykola Levytsky, and Serhiy Ostapenko
(Economic Adviser)
Germany
The state secretary for Foreign Affairs
Richard von Kühlmann
and Reichswehr
General Max Hoffmann
Austria-Hungary
The Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Ottokar Czernin
Bulgaria
The prime minister Vasil Radoslavov
, ambassador to Austria-Hungary Andrey Toshev
, I. Stoianovich, T. Anastasov, and Colonel P. Ganchev
Ottoman Empire
The newly elected (February 4) Grand Vizier
Mehmed Talat, I. Hakki Pasha, A. Nessimi Bey, and Ahmed İzzet Pasha
Within days of the treaty's signing, an army of over 450,000 men from the Central Powers entered Ukraine, and after only a month most of the Bolshevik troops had left the country without any significant resistance. Soon after the takeover of Kyiv by Ukrainian and German troops, the Tsentralna Rada could return to Kyiv on March 2.
's boundaries: in the west the 1914 Austro-Hungarian–Russian boundary which excluded the Ukrainian Halychyna in the new Ukrainian state; in the north the line running from Tarnogród
, Biłgoraj, Szczebrzeszyn
, Krasnystaw
, Radzyń Podlaski
and Międzyrzec Podlaski
in present Lublin Voivodeship
(Poland
), Sarnaki in present Masovian Voivodeship
(Poland), Kamyanyets and Pruzhany
in present Brest Voblast
(Belarus
). The exact boundaries were to be determined by a mixed commission on the basis of ethnic composition and the will of the inhabitants (article 2).
The articles in the treaty also provided for the regulated evacuation of the occupied regions (article 3), the establishment of diplomatic relations (article 4), mutual renouncement of war reparations (article 5), the return of prisoners of war (article 6), and the exchange of interned civilians and the renewal of public and private legal relations (article 8). Article 7 provided for the immediate resumption of economic relations and trade and set down the principles of accounting and tariffs.
Austria-Hungary
and the Ukrainian People's Republic also signed a secret agreement regarding Halychyna and Bukovyna. Austria-Hungary agreed to unify by July 31, 1918 in one crownland those areas of eastern Halychyna and Bukovyna where the Ukrainian population predominated. But on July 4, Austria-Hungary annulled this secret agreement under the pretext that Ukraine had not delivered to it the amount of grain promised under the treaty. It is believed that this action was the result of Polish pressure.
The Central Powers signed a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
with Bolshevist Russia
on March 3, 1918. Russia agreed to recognize the concluded treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic and to immediately sign a peace treaty with Ukraine, to define the borders between Russia and Ukraine without delay, to clear the Ukrainian territory of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard
, as well as put an end to all agitation or propaganda against the government or the public institutions of the Ukrainian People's Republic (article 6).
refused to follow Austrian orders, and after the battle of Rarańcza
broke through the front lines to join Polish forces in the Russian Civil War
. Although the Austrian government in Vienna withdrew from parts of the treaty, the damage it has caused to the Polish-Austrian relations was significant, and the pro-Austrian and anti-independence faction of Polish-Austrian politicians have been permanently weakened.
The treaty of Brest-Litovsk provided the Ukrainian People's Republic with German and Austro-Hungarian military aid in clearing Bolshevik forces from Ukraine in February–April 1918, but the treaty also meant that the Entente Powers suspended relations with the Ukrainian People's Republic.
Soon, however, the invited foreign forces from the Central Powers were seen as occupants by a major part of the Ukrainian population and also parts of the Tsentralna Rada
. In late April the German Supreme Commander in Ukraine, Hermann von Eichhorn
, issued an order making Ukrainians subject to German military courts for offenses against German interests, the First Ukrainian Division (the Blue coats) was disarmed, and German soldiers even arrested two ministers after they criticized the German actions. The final break with the Tsentralna Rada came on April 29, when General Pavlo Skoropadskyi declared himself Hetman
of the Ukrainian state.
The Treaty of Rapallo
of 1922 between Germany
and Soviet Russia
canceled the German commitments made at Brest-Litovsk. The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 automatically annulled its commitments. Turkey
renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by signing a treaty with the Ukrainian SSR
in 1922. Only Bulgaria
, as far as is known, did not formally annul the treaty.
Peace treaty
A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, that formally ends a state of war between the parties...
signed on March 3, 1918 between the Russian SFSR and the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
, but prior to that on February 9, 1918, the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
signed an exclusive protectorate treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
as part of the negotiations that took place in Brest-Litovsk, Minsk Governorate
Minsk Governorate
The Minsk Governorate or Government of Minsk was a governorate of the Russian Empire. The seat was in Minsk. It was created in 1793 from the land acquired in the partitions of Poland, and lasted until 1921.- Administrative structure :...
(now Brest, Belarus
Brest, Belarus
Brest , formerly also Brest-on-the-Bug and Brest-Litovsk , is a city in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the city of Terespol, where the Bug River and Mukhavets rivers meet...
) recognizing the sovereignty of the republic. Although not formally annexing the territory of the former Russian Empire, the Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
secured a food supply support in return for the military protection.
Intentions
Ukrainian People's RepublicBecause of the civil unrest in the Russian Republic culminating in the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
the Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
declared its wider autonomy under the government of the General Secretariat of Ukraine
General Secretariat of Ukraine
The General Secretariat of Ukraine was the main executive institution of the Ukrainian People's Republic from June 28, 1917 to January 22, 1918.It closely related to the today's Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine...
. In its declaration the General Secretariat announced the elections for the Ukrainian Constituent Assembly to be held on January 9, 1918 and the first convocation on January 22 of the same year.
On December 17, 1917 Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and communist politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years , as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a...
as the head of the Sovnarkom released an ultimatum in which he was accusing the Central Rada of disorganizing the frontlines, stopping "any troops going into the region of the Don, the Urals, or elsewhere", sheltering political enemies such as the members of the Cadet party and ones who sided with Kaledine, as well as obligating to "put an end to the attempts to crush the armies of the Soviet and of the Red Guard in the Ukraine". Lenin gave a 24 hours notice to the government of what he called "the independent and bourgeois Republic of the Ukraine" to respond. Having Soviet armies already in Ukraine, the government of Ukraine had to act quickly to preserve the sovereignty of the state.
The Ukrainian Central Rada expressed desire for peace treaty with foreign countries and its recognition worldwide. Since the representatives of the Britain and French Empires did not wish to recognize its sovereignty considering it as a part of their major ally, the Russian Empire, the treaty was giving a chance for some recognition in face of the Central Powers.
On January 1, 1918 a Ukrainian delegation headed by Vsevolod Holubovych
Vsevolod Holubovych
Vsevolod Oleksandrovych Holubovych was born in the village of Poltavka, Balta uyezd, Podolie Governorate. Holubovych was the Prime Minister of the Ukrainian People's Republic from January to March.-Early period:...
arrived at Brest-Litovsk. The initial delegation beside Liubynsky, Sevriuk, and Levytsky included Mykhailo Poloz.
The Peace Negotiations
The peace negotiation was initiated by the government of Soviet RussiaRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
on December 3, 1917 represented by the delegation headed by the Ukrainian-born Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky , born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army....
. Several resolutions were reached between December 22–26 and on December 28, 1917 an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
was signed suspending hostilities at front-lines. Prior to that a Soviet government of Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic was formed in Kharkiv
Kharkiv
Kharkiv or Kharkov is the second-largest city in Ukraine.The city was founded in 1654 and was a major centre of Ukrainian culture in the Russian Empire. Kharkiv became the first city in Ukraine where the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in December 1917 and Soviet government was...
on December 17, 1917. The final undersigning was being procrastinated by Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
s in hope to reach some agreement with the Entente
Triple Entente
The Triple Entente was the name given to the alliance among Britain, France and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907....
treaty members.
On January 12, Count Ottokar Czernin as a representative of the Central Powers recognized the independent delegation from the Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
, but together with Csáky refused to discuss the questions of the Halychyna
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria was a crownland of the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire, and Austria–Hungary from 1772 to 1918 .This historical region in eastern Central Europe is currently divided between Poland and Ukraine...
, Bucovina, Subcarpathian Rus. They agreed that the Kholm Governorate
Kholm Governorate
Kholm Governorate or Chełm Governorate was an administrative unit of the Russian Empire. Its capital was in Chełm ....
and the region of Podlachia were part of the Ukrainian People's Republic
Ukrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
. The Russian Bolshevik delegation, headed by Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky , born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army....
, had at first also recognized the independent Ukrainian delegation on January 10.
The Ukrainian delegation returned on January 20, 1918 to Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
, where the Tsentralna Rada
Tsentralna Rada
The Tsentralna Rada or Central Rada at first was the All-Ukrainian council that united political, public, cultural, professional organizations. Later after the All-Ukrainian National Congress that council became the revolutionary parliament of Ukraine...
proclaimed a fully sovereign Ukrainian state on January 25 (dated January 22). Right after this a new Ukrainian delegation was sent to Brest headed now by Oleksandr Sevriuk. Meanwhile, Bolshevik revolts occurred in different cities
Kiev Arsenal January Uprising
Kiev Arsenal January Uprising, sometimes called simply the January Uprising or the January Rebellion , was the Bolshevik organized workers' armed revolt that started on January 29, 1918 at the Kiev Arsenal factory during the Ukrainian-Soviet War....
in Ukraine, which more or less forced the Ukrainian People's Republic – which was lacking organized military forces – to seek foreign aid. However, the situation for the Central Powers was also critical, especially for Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
, which suffered severe food shortages. On February 1, plenary session of the Congress was attended also by the Soviet government of Ukraine in the face of Yukhym Medvediev and Vasyl' Shakhrai
Vasyl' Shakhrai
Vasyl' Shakhrai was a Ukrainian political activist and Soviet revolutionary during the Russian Revolution. He was noted as an advocate of National Communism and did not support the October Revolution....
. Nevertheless, the Central Powers continued to negotiate with the delegation from the Ukrainian People's Republic as the sole representatives of Ukraine. While the Tsentralna Rada was abandoning Kiev for Bolshevik troops, a peace treaty was signed in Brest-Litovsk during the night of February 9–10 over the Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
s protests.
Signatories
Ukrainian People's RepublicOleksandr Sevriuk (head of delegation), Mykola Liubynsky (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Mykola Levytsky, and Serhiy Ostapenko
Serhiy Ostapenko
Serhiy Ostapenko was economist, statesman, and political activist of Ukraine. In the beginning of 1919 he directed the Council of People's Ministers of Ukrainian People's Republic .-Early years:...
(Economic Adviser)
Germany
The state secretary for Foreign Affairs
Foreign Minister of Germany
The Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs is the head of the Federal Foreign Office and a member of the Cabinet of Germany. The current office holder is Guido Westerwelle...
Richard von Kühlmann
Richard von Kühlmann
Richard von Kühlmann was a German diplomat and industrialist. From 6 August 1917 to 9 July 1918, he served as Germany's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.-Biography:Kühlmann was born in Constantinople...
and Reichswehr
Reichswehr
The Reichswehr formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935, when it was renamed the Wehrmacht ....
General Max Hoffmann
Max Hoffmann
Max Hoffmann was a German officer and military strategist during World War I. He is widely regarded as one of the finest staff officers of the imperial period....
Austria-Hungary
The Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Ottokar Czernin
Bulgaria
The prime minister Vasil Radoslavov
Vasil Radoslavov
Vasil Radoslavov was a leading Bulgarian liberal politician who twice served as Prime Minister. He was Premier of the country throughout most of World War I....
, ambassador to Austria-Hungary Andrey Toshev
Andrey Toshev
Andrey Slavov Toshev was Prime Minister of Bulgaria in 1935. He was also a Bulgarian scientist and a diplomat....
, I. Stoianovich, T. Anastasov, and Colonel P. Ganchev
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
The newly elected (February 4) Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier, in Turkish Vezir-i Azam or Sadr-ı Azam , deriving from the Arabic word vizier , was the greatest minister of the Sultan, with absolute power of attorney and, in principle, dismissable only by the Sultan himself...
Mehmed Talat, I. Hakki Pasha, A. Nessimi Bey, and Ahmed İzzet Pasha
Ahmed İzzet Pasha
Ahmed Izzet Pasha was an Ottoman general in World War I. He was also one of the last grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire, and its last minister of Foreign Affairs.He was born in Bitola Macedonia into an Albanian family. His father was prominent civil servant of the area...
Within days of the treaty's signing, an army of over 450,000 men from the Central Powers entered Ukraine, and after only a month most of the Bolshevik troops had left the country without any significant resistance. Soon after the takeover of Kyiv by Ukrainian and German troops, the Tsentralna Rada could return to Kyiv on March 2.
Terms of the peace treaty
The treaty recognized the following as the Ukrainian People's RepublicUkrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
's boundaries: in the west the 1914 Austro-Hungarian–Russian boundary which excluded the Ukrainian Halychyna in the new Ukrainian state; in the north the line running from Tarnogród
Tarnogród
Tarnogród is a town in Biłgoraj County, Lublin Voivodeship, Poland. It has a population of 3,399 .The history of the town dates back to the Middle Ages settlement, then known as Cierniogród...
, Biłgoraj, Szczebrzeszyn
Szczebrzeszyn
Szczebrzeszyn is a city in southeastern Poland in Lublin Voivodeship, in Zamość County, about 20 km west of Zamość. From 1975–1999, it was part of the Zamość Voivodeship administrative district. The town serves as the seat to Gmina Szczebrzeszyn. A 2004 census counted 5,357 inhabitants...
, Krasnystaw
Krasnystaw
Krasnystaw is a town in eastern Poland with 19,615 inhabitants . Situated in the Lublin Voivodeship , previously in Chelm Voivodeship . It is the capital of Krasnystaw County....
, Radzyń Podlaski
Radzyn Podlaski
Radzyń Podlaski is a town in eastern Poland, about 60 km north of Lublin, with 16,140 inhabitants . Situated in the Lublin Voivodeship , previously in Biała Podlaska Voivodeship . It is the capital of Radzyń Podlaski County.The town was founded in 1468. The most important landmark is the...
and Międzyrzec Podlaski
Miedzyrzec Podlaski
Międzyrzec Podlaski is a city in Biała Podlaska County, Lublin Voivodeship, Poland, with the population of 17,162 inhabitants as of 2006. The total area of the city is 20.03 km2...
in present Lublin Voivodeship
Lublin Voivodeship
- Administrative division :Lublin Voivodeship is divided into 24 counties : 4 city counties and 20 land counties. These are further divided into 213 gminas....
(Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
), Sarnaki in present Masovian Voivodeship
Masovian Voivodeship
-Administrative division:Masovian Voivodeship is divided into 42 counties : 5 city counties and 37 "land counties"...
(Poland), Kamyanyets and Pruzhany
Pruzhany
Pruzhany is a town in Brest Voblast, Belarus. Pruzhany is the center of a district in Brest Region, Belarus. Its population is about 20.000 people. The town is located at the confluence of the Mukha River and the Vets Canal, which give the start to Mukhavets River.-History:Pruzhany has been known...
in present Brest Voblast
Brest Voblast
Brest Voblast or Brest Oblast is a province of Belarus with its administrative center being Brest.Important cities within the voblast' include: Baranovichi, Brest, and Pinsk.-Geography:...
(Belarus
Belarus
Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel ,...
). The exact boundaries were to be determined by a mixed commission on the basis of ethnic composition and the will of the inhabitants (article 2).
The articles in the treaty also provided for the regulated evacuation of the occupied regions (article 3), the establishment of diplomatic relations (article 4), mutual renouncement of war reparations (article 5), the return of prisoners of war (article 6), and the exchange of interned civilians and the renewal of public and private legal relations (article 8). Article 7 provided for the immediate resumption of economic relations and trade and set down the principles of accounting and tariffs.
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
and the Ukrainian People's Republic also signed a secret agreement regarding Halychyna and Bukovyna. Austria-Hungary agreed to unify by July 31, 1918 in one crownland those areas of eastern Halychyna and Bukovyna where the Ukrainian population predominated. But on July 4, Austria-Hungary annulled this secret agreement under the pretext that Ukraine had not delivered to it the amount of grain promised under the treaty. It is believed that this action was the result of Polish pressure.
The Central Powers signed a separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, mediated by South African Andrik Fuller, at Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the Central Powers, headed by Germany, marking Russia's exit from World War I.While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year,...
with Bolshevist Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
on March 3, 1918. Russia agreed to recognize the concluded treaty with the Ukrainian People's Republic and to immediately sign a peace treaty with Ukraine, to define the borders between Russia and Ukraine without delay, to clear the Ukrainian territory of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard
Red Guards (Russia)
In the context of the history of Russia and Soviet Union, Red Guards were paramilitary formations consisting of workers and partially of soldiers and sailors formed in the time frame of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
, as well as put an end to all agitation or propaganda against the government or the public institutions of the Ukrainian People's Republic (article 6).
Effects of the treaty
The treaty immediately caused much opposition among Poles, particularly those in Austria-Hungary. Polish politicians in the Austrian parliament immediately begun their protests, paralyzing the parliament; civil servants begun a strike, and spontaneous demonstrations took place in various cities and towns. Most notably, the Polish Auxiliary CorpsPolish Auxiliary Corps
Polish Auxiliary Corps was the name of the Polish military formation in the Austro-Hungarian Army, based on the Polish Legions. It was created in the aftermath of the Oath crisis from the Legions on 20 September 1916 and existed until 19 February 1918...
refused to follow Austrian orders, and after the battle of Rarańcza
Battle of Rarancza
The Battle of Rarańcza was fought between Polish Legionnaires, and Austria-Hungary, from February 15 to 16, 1918, near Rarańcza in Bukovina, and ended with a Polish victory.-Background:...
broke through the front lines to join Polish forces in the Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
. Although the Austrian government in Vienna withdrew from parts of the treaty, the damage it has caused to the Polish-Austrian relations was significant, and the pro-Austrian and anti-independence faction of Polish-Austrian politicians have been permanently weakened.
The treaty of Brest-Litovsk provided the Ukrainian People's Republic with German and Austro-Hungarian military aid in clearing Bolshevik forces from Ukraine in February–April 1918, but the treaty also meant that the Entente Powers suspended relations with the Ukrainian People's Republic.
Soon, however, the invited foreign forces from the Central Powers were seen as occupants by a major part of the Ukrainian population and also parts of the Tsentralna Rada
Tsentralna Rada
The Tsentralna Rada or Central Rada at first was the All-Ukrainian council that united political, public, cultural, professional organizations. Later after the All-Ukrainian National Congress that council became the revolutionary parliament of Ukraine...
. In late April the German Supreme Commander in Ukraine, Hermann von Eichhorn
Hermann von Eichhorn
Hermann von Eichhorn was a Prussian general.-Biography:Eichhorn was born in Breslau in the Province of Silesia...
, issued an order making Ukrainians subject to German military courts for offenses against German interests, the First Ukrainian Division (the Blue coats) was disarmed, and German soldiers even arrested two ministers after they criticized the German actions. The final break with the Tsentralna Rada came on April 29, when General Pavlo Skoropadskyi declared himself Hetman
Hetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
of the Ukrainian state.
The Treaty of Rapallo
Treaty of Rapallo, 1922
The Treaty of Rapallo was an agreement signed at the Hotel Imperiale in the Italian town of Rapallo on 16 April, 1922 between Germany and Soviet Russia under which each renounced all territorial and financial claims against the other following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and World War I.The two...
of 1922 between Germany
Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic is the name given by historians to the parliamentary republic established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government...
and Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
canceled the German commitments made at Brest-Litovsk. The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 automatically annulled its commitments. Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by signing a treaty with the Ukrainian SSR
Ukrainian SSR
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or in short, the Ukrainian SSR was a sovereign Soviet Socialist state and one of the fifteen constituent republics of the Soviet Union lasting from its inception in 1922 to the breakup in 1991...
in 1922. Only Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic in Southeast Europe. The country borders Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, as well as the Black Sea to the east...
, as far as is known, did not formally annul the treaty.