Type of Constans
Encyclopedia
The Type of Constans is an imperial edict released by Byzantine Emperor Constans II in 648
in an attempt to defuse the confusion and arguments over the Christological doctrine of Monotheletism.
had spent the last few years of his life attempting to find a compromise theological position between the Monophysites and the Chalcedonians over their debates about whether Jesus Christ had one nature or two separate natures. What he promoted via his Ecthesis
was a doctrine which declared that Jesus
, whilst he possessed two distinct natures, had only one will.
This approach seemed to be an acceptable compromise, and it secured widespread support throughout the east. The four Patriarch of the East – Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem - all gave their approval to the doctrine referred to as Monothelitism, and so it looked as if Heraclius would finally heal the divisions in the church.
Unfortunately he hadn’t counted on the Pope
s at Rome
. During that same year of 638, Pope Honorius I too had died. His successor Pope Severinus
condemned the Ecthesis outright, and so was forbidden his seat until 640. His successor Pope John IV
also rejected the doctrine completely, leading to a major schism
between the eastern and western halves of the Catholic Church. When news reach Heraclius of the Pope’s condemnation, he was already old and ill, and the news only hastened his death, declaring with his dying breath that the controversy was all due to Sergius, and that the Patriarch had pressured him to give his unwilling approval to the Ecthesis.
The death of Heraclius in 641
had thrown the political situation in Constantinople into chaos, and his young grandson Constans II eventually succeeded him. Meanwhile in Africa, a monk named Maximus the Confessor
carried on a furious campaign against Monotheletism, and in 646
he convinced the African councils to draw up a manifesto against the doctrine. This they forwarded to the new pope Theodore I
, who in turn wrote to Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople
, outlining the heretical nature of the doctrine. Paul, another devoted Monothelete, replied in a letter directing the Pope to adhere to the doctrine of one will. Theodore in turn excommunicated the Patriarch in 649
, declaring Paul a heretic
.
, and so he issued an imperial edict
called the Type of Constans. This edict made it illegal to discuss in any manner the topic of Christ possessing either one or two wills, or one or two energies. He declared that the whole controversy was to be forgotten – “the scheme which existed before the strife arose shall be maintained, as it would have been if no such disputation had arisen.”.
There were various penalties proscribed on anyone who disobeyed the imperial decree. For bishops or clerks of the church, they would be deposed. Monks were to be excommunicated, while public servants or military officers would lose their office. For private citizens of senatorial rank, they would have their property confiscated. Finally for the great mass of the citizenry, if they transgressed they would face corporal punishment and banishment for life.
to condemn the Ecthesis, but died before he could convene it, which his successor, Pope Martin I
, did. Not only did the Council condemn the Ecthesis, it also condemned the Type as well. After the synod, Pope Martin wrote to Constans, informing the emperor of its conclusions and requiring him to condemn both the Monothelete doctrine and his own Type. Unfortunately, Constans was not the sort of emperor to take such a rebuke of imperial authority lightly.
Even while the Lateran Synod was sitting, Olympius
arrived as the new exarch of Ravenna
, with instructions to ensure that the Type was followed in Italy
, and to use whatever means necessary to ensure that the Pope adhered to it. He was unable to complete his mission and soon died, but his successor Theodore I Calliopas
seized Pope Martin and abducted him to Constantinople. Here he was imprisoned and tortured before being condemned for breaking the imperial commands and was banished before dying from his treatment at the hands of the emperor.
The emperor continued to persecute any who spoke out against Monotheletism, including Maximus the Confessor and a number of his disciples – Maximus lost his tongue and his right hand in an effort to have him recant. Nevertheless, his brutality did have an effect, with the Patriarchs, including the Popes, remaining silent throughout the remainder of his reign.
, the throne passed to his son Constantine IV
. Pope Vitalian
, who had hosted the visit of Constans II to Rome in 663
, almost immediately declared himself in favor of the doctrine of the two wills of Christ. In response Patriarch Theodore I of Constantinople
and Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch both pressed Constantine to take some measures against the Pope. Constantine, however, decided to let the Monotheletic question to be decided entirely by a Church Council.
This council, the Sixth Ecumenical Council, met from 680 to 681. It hosted representatives from the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem, while the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch were present in person. It unanimously, with the exception of two individuals, condemned the Monotheletic doctrine and the Type of Constans.
648
Year 648 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 648 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Literature :* The Book of Jin is compiled in China...
in an attempt to defuse the confusion and arguments over the Christological doctrine of Monotheletism.
Background
Emperor Constans’ grandfather HeracliusHeraclius
Heraclius was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641.He was responsible for introducing Greek as the empire's official language. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, successfully led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas.Heraclius'...
had spent the last few years of his life attempting to find a compromise theological position between the Monophysites and the Chalcedonians over their debates about whether Jesus Christ had one nature or two separate natures. What he promoted via his Ecthesis
Ecthesis
The Ecthesis is a letter published in 638 CE by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius which defined monotheletism as the official imperial form of Christianity.-Background:...
was a doctrine which declared that Jesus
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
, whilst he possessed two distinct natures, had only one will.
This approach seemed to be an acceptable compromise, and it secured widespread support throughout the east. The four Patriarch of the East – Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem - all gave their approval to the doctrine referred to as Monothelitism, and so it looked as if Heraclius would finally heal the divisions in the church.
Unfortunately he hadn’t counted on the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
s at Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. During that same year of 638, Pope Honorius I too had died. His successor Pope Severinus
Pope Severinus
Pope Severinus was pope in the year 640 who became caught up in a power struggle with the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius over the ongoing Monothelite controversy.-Election and struggle with Constantinople:...
condemned the Ecthesis outright, and so was forbidden his seat until 640. His successor Pope John IV
Pope John IV
Pope John IV was elected Pope of the Catholic Church, after a four-month sede vacante, December 24, 640.Pope John was a native of Dalmatia . He was the son of the scholasticus Venantius. At the time of his election he was archdeacon of the Roman Church, an important role in governing the see...
also rejected the doctrine completely, leading to a major schism
Schism (religion)
A schism , from Greek σχίσμα, skhísma , is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization or movement religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a break of communion between two sections of Christianity that were previously a single body, or to a division within...
between the eastern and western halves of the Catholic Church. When news reach Heraclius of the Pope’s condemnation, he was already old and ill, and the news only hastened his death, declaring with his dying breath that the controversy was all due to Sergius, and that the Patriarch had pressured him to give his unwilling approval to the Ecthesis.
The death of Heraclius in 641
641
Year 641 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 641 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Byzantine Empire :* February 11 – Byzantine...
had thrown the political situation in Constantinople into chaos, and his young grandson Constans II eventually succeeded him. Meanwhile in Africa, a monk named Maximus the Confessor
Maximus the Confessor
Maximus the Confessor was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, he was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius...
carried on a furious campaign against Monotheletism, and in 646
646
Year 646 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 646 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Byzantine Empire :* Alexandria is recaptured by the...
he convinced the African councils to draw up a manifesto against the doctrine. This they forwarded to the new pope Theodore I
Pope Theodore I
Pope Theodore I , who was pope from November 24, 642, to May 14, 649, is considered a Greek, but was born in Jerusalem. He was made a cardinal deacon, and a full cardinal by Pope John IV....
, who in turn wrote to Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople
Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople
Paul II was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 641 to 653. He assumed regency for Byzantine emperor Constans II after a succession crisis in 641....
, outlining the heretical nature of the doctrine. Paul, another devoted Monothelete, replied in a letter directing the Pope to adhere to the doctrine of one will. Theodore in turn excommunicated the Patriarch in 649
649
Year 649 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 649 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* Arabs conquer Cyprus* Soga no Kurayamada no...
, declaring Paul a heretic
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
.
Details of the Type of Constans
Constans II was a young man of seventeen, and he was supremely indifferent to the religious debates convulsing the Church. However, he was certainly concerned about the effect all these arcane debates was having on the Roman EmpireRoman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, and so he issued an imperial edict
Edict
An edict is an announcement of a law, often associated with monarchism. The Pope and various micronational leaders are currently the only persons who still issue edicts.-Notable edicts:...
called the Type of Constans. This edict made it illegal to discuss in any manner the topic of Christ possessing either one or two wills, or one or two energies. He declared that the whole controversy was to be forgotten – “the scheme which existed before the strife arose shall be maintained, as it would have been if no such disputation had arisen.”.
There were various penalties proscribed on anyone who disobeyed the imperial decree. For bishops or clerks of the church, they would be deposed. Monks were to be excommunicated, while public servants or military officers would lose their office. For private citizens of senatorial rank, they would have their property confiscated. Finally for the great mass of the citizenry, if they transgressed they would face corporal punishment and banishment for life.
Opposition to the Type
In Rome and the west, the opposition to Monotheletism was reaching fever pitch, and the ‘’Type’’ of Constans did nothing to defuse the situation; indeed it made it worse by implying that either doctrine was a good as the other. Theodore planned the Lateran Council of 649Lateran Council of 649
The Lateran Council of 649 was a synod held in the Basilica of St. John Lateran to condemn Monothelitism, a Christology espoused by many Eastern Christians...
to condemn the Ecthesis, but died before he could convene it, which his successor, Pope Martin I
Pope Martin I
Pope Martin I, born near Todi, Umbria in the place now named after him , was pope from 649 to 653, succeeding Pope Theodore I in July 5, 649. The only pope during the Byzantine Papacy whose election was not approved by a iussio from Constantinople, Martin I was abducted by Constans II and died in...
, did. Not only did the Council condemn the Ecthesis, it also condemned the Type as well. After the synod, Pope Martin wrote to Constans, informing the emperor of its conclusions and requiring him to condemn both the Monothelete doctrine and his own Type. Unfortunately, Constans was not the sort of emperor to take such a rebuke of imperial authority lightly.
Even while the Lateran Synod was sitting, Olympius
Olympius (exarch)
Olympius was an Exarch of Ravenna . Prior to his term as exarch, Olympius was an imperial chamberlain at Constantinople.In 649, according to the Liber Pontificalis, the Byzantine Emperor Constans II ordered Olympius to arrest Pope Martin I on the grounds that the pope's election had not been...
arrived as the new exarch of Ravenna
Exarchate of Ravenna
The Exarchate of Ravenna or of Italy was a centre of Byzantine power in Italy, from the end of the 6th century to 751, when the last exarch was put to death by the Lombards.-Introduction:...
, with instructions to ensure that the Type was followed in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, and to use whatever means necessary to ensure that the Pope adhered to it. He was unable to complete his mission and soon died, but his successor Theodore I Calliopas
Theodore I Calliopas
Theodore Calliopas was an Exarch of Ravenna twice .Nothing is known of Theodore's first term, except that he succeeded Isaac 643, and was replaced by Plato c. 645....
seized Pope Martin and abducted him to Constantinople. Here he was imprisoned and tortured before being condemned for breaking the imperial commands and was banished before dying from his treatment at the hands of the emperor.
The emperor continued to persecute any who spoke out against Monotheletism, including Maximus the Confessor and a number of his disciples – Maximus lost his tongue and his right hand in an effort to have him recant. Nevertheless, his brutality did have an effect, with the Patriarchs, including the Popes, remaining silent throughout the remainder of his reign.
Condemnation of the Type
With Constans death in 668668
Year 668 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 668 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Childeric II succeeds Clotaire III as King...
, the throne passed to his son Constantine IV
Constantine IV
Constantine IV , , sometimes incorrectly called Pogonatos, "the Bearded", by confusion with his father; was Byzantine emperor from 668 to 685...
. Pope Vitalian
Pope Vitalian
Pope Saint Vitalianus was Pope of the Catholic Church from July 30, 657, until January 27, 672.He was born in Segni, Lazio, the son of Anastasius.-Reign:...
, who had hosted the visit of Constans II to Rome in 663
663
Year 663 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 663 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Byzantine Empire :* Byzantine Emperor Constans II...
, almost immediately declared himself in favor of the doctrine of the two wills of Christ. In response Patriarch Theodore I of Constantinople
Theodore I of Constantinople
Theodore I was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 677 to 679....
and Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch both pressed Constantine to take some measures against the Pope. Constantine, however, decided to let the Monotheletic question to be decided entirely by a Church Council.
This council, the Sixth Ecumenical Council, met from 680 to 681. It hosted representatives from the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem, while the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch were present in person. It unanimously, with the exception of two individuals, condemned the Monotheletic doctrine and the Type of Constans.
See also
- MonophysitismMonophysitismMonophysitism , or Monophysiticism, is the Christological position that Jesus Christ has only one nature, his humanity being absorbed by his Deity...
- ChalcedonianChalcedonianChalcedonian describes churches and theologians which accept the definition given at the Council of Chalcedon of how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus Christ...
- Miaphysite
- DyothelitismDyothelitismDyothelitism is a particular teaching about how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus, known as a Christological doctrine. Specifically, Dyothelitism teaches that Jesus Christ had two natures and two wills. This position is in opposition to the Monothelitism position in the...
- EcthesisEcthesisThe Ecthesis is a letter published in 638 CE by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius which defined monotheletism as the official imperial form of Christianity.-Background:...