Uncertainty reduction theory
Encyclopedia
Uncertainty Reduction Theory was introduced in 1975 in the paper Some Exploration in Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of Interpersonal Communication. This theory, a collaborative effort of Charles R. Berger
and Richard J. Calabrese, was proposed to predict and explain relational development (or lack thereof) between strangers. The theory
explains how individuals seek to reduce uncertainty
between each other during initial interaction
s, based on self-disclosure
.
The scope of the theory is narrowed down to rest on the premise that strangers, upon meeting, go through certain steps and checkpoints in order to reduce uncertainty about each other and form an idea of whether one likes or dislikes the other. To study this phenomenon, the interaction is viewed as going through several stages. Berger and Calabrese also introduce axioms and theorems regarding initial interaction behaviors.
The entry stage of relational development is characterized by the use of behavioral norms. The contents of the exchanges are often demographic and transactional. Common initial question
s are: Where are you from? Or, Do you have any pets? The level of involvement will increase as the strangers move into the second stage (Berger & Calabrese, 99–100).
The second stage, or personal phase, is when strangers begin to explore the attitude
s and belief
s of the other. Typically, this stage is entered after the strangers have had several entry stage interactions. One will probe the other for indications of their values, moral
s and personal issues. Emotional involvement tends to increase as disclosures are made (Berger & Calabrese, 100).
The final stage of interactional development is the exit phase. Here, the former strangers decided if they want to continue to develop a relationship. Any plan
s for the future are made. If there is not mutual liking, either can choose not to pursue a relationship (Berger & Calabrese, 100).
Understanding the cycle of relational development is key to studying how people seek to reduce uncertainty about others.
ology and deductive reasoning to reach their conclusions (Miller, 176). The results of the studies form the foundation of the theory, seven axiom
s and 21 theorem
s. The following are the axioms set forth by Berger and Calabrese in their paper:
Berger and Calabrese formulated the following theorems deductively from their axioms:
Viewed as a whole, the processes of getting to know someone, as well as if there is liking between the two, can be predicted by examining the interactive phenomena through Uncertainty Reduction Theory’s tenets (Berger & Calabrese, 101–109).
. The judgment will determine whether the judge will continue to reduce their uncertainties or end the relationship. Berger also acknowledges the works of Gundykunst, et al. (1985) and Parks & Adelman (1983) to extend Uncertainty Reduction Theory to the realm of more established relationships. Planalp & Honeycutt (1985) studies the introduction of new uncertainty to existing relationships. Their findings indicate that uncertainty in long-term relationships usually impacts negatively on the relationship.
(1986) indicated that the actual motivation for interaction is a desire for positive relational experiences. Kellerman and Reynolds (1990) pointed out that sometimes there are high level of uncertainty in interaction that no one wants to reduce (Miller, 180–183).As a result of the critique, researchers formed the Uncertainty Management theory
. This theory contrasts uncertainty reduction theory by identifying reduction as only one of the many actions that people take when uncertainty arises.
Gudykunst (1985) points out that Uncertainty Reduction Theory was formulated to describe the actions and behaviors of middle-class, white strangers in the United States. This is the demographic in the studies Berger and Calabrese used to develop the theory (Gundykunst, 204). Another issue is the scope of the axioms and theorems. If a particular theorem is disproved, it destroys the axiological base upon which it rests.
s in recent years. Although it continues to be widely respected as a tool to explain and predict initial interaction events, it is now also employed to study intercultural interaction (Gudykunst et al., 1985), organizational socialization
(Lester, 1986), and as a function of media
(Katz & Blumer, 1974). Gudykunst argues that it is important to test theory in new paradigm
s, thus adding to its fortitude (Gudykunst, 204).
Charles Berger (academic)
Charles Berger is an American professor of communication at University of California, Davis, USA.Berger received his B.S. in Psychology from the Pennsylvania State University. After completing his undergraduate studies, he attended the Michigan State University where he received his M.A. and Ph.D....
and Richard J. Calabrese, was proposed to predict and explain relational development (or lack thereof) between strangers. The theory
Theory
The English word theory was derived from a technical term in Ancient Greek philosophy. The word theoria, , meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", and referring to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action...
explains how individuals seek to reduce uncertainty
Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields, including physics, philosophy, statistics, economics, finance, insurance, psychology, sociology, engineering, and information science...
between each other during initial interaction
Interaction
Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect...
s, based on self-disclosure
Self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is both the conscious and subconscious act of revealing more about oneself to others. This may include, but is not limited to, thoughts, feelings, aspirations, goals, failures, successes, fears, dreams as well as one's likes, dislikes, and favorites.Typically, a self-disclosure...
.
The scope of the theory is narrowed down to rest on the premise that strangers, upon meeting, go through certain steps and checkpoints in order to reduce uncertainty about each other and form an idea of whether one likes or dislikes the other. To study this phenomenon, the interaction is viewed as going through several stages. Berger and Calabrese also introduce axioms and theorems regarding initial interaction behaviors.
Stages of Relational Development
Berger and Calabrese separate the initial interaction of strangers into three stages, the entry stage, the personal stage, and the exit stage. Each category includes interactional behaviors that serve as indicators of liking and disliking.The entry stage of relational development is characterized by the use of behavioral norms. The contents of the exchanges are often demographic and transactional. Common initial question
Question
A question may be either a linguistic expression used to make a request for information, or else the request itself made by such an expression. This information may be provided with an answer....
s are: Where are you from? Or, Do you have any pets? The level of involvement will increase as the strangers move into the second stage (Berger & Calabrese, 99–100).
The second stage, or personal phase, is when strangers begin to explore the attitude
Attitude (psychology)
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for something. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event— this is often referred to as the attitude object...
s and belief
Belief
Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true.-Belief, knowledge and epistemology:The terms belief and knowledge are used differently in philosophy....
s of the other. Typically, this stage is entered after the strangers have had several entry stage interactions. One will probe the other for indications of their values, moral
Moral
A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim...
s and personal issues. Emotional involvement tends to increase as disclosures are made (Berger & Calabrese, 100).
The final stage of interactional development is the exit phase. Here, the former strangers decided if they want to continue to develop a relationship. Any plan
Plan
A plan is typically any diagram or list of steps with timing and resources, used to achieve an objective. See also strategy. It is commonly understood as a temporal set of intended actions, through which one expects to achieve a goal...
s for the future are made. If there is not mutual liking, either can choose not to pursue a relationship (Berger & Calabrese, 100).
Understanding the cycle of relational development is key to studying how people seek to reduce uncertainty about others.
Axioms & Theorems
Berger and Calabrese used several studies as a guide to develop the foundations of Uncertainty Reduction Theory. Research and theory development was steeped in the post-positivist tradition, using scientific methodScientific method
Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of...
ology and deductive reasoning to reach their conclusions (Miller, 176). The results of the studies form the foundation of the theory, seven axiom
Axiom
In traditional logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proven or demonstrated but considered either to be self-evident or to define and delimit the realm of analysis. In other words, an axiom is a logical statement that is assumed to be true...
s and 21 theorem
Theorem
In mathematics, a theorem is a statement that has been proven on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems, and previously accepted statements, such as axioms...
s. The following are the axioms set forth by Berger and Calabrese in their paper:
-
- Axiom 1: Given the high level of uncertainty present at the onset of the entry phase, as the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication will increase.
- Axiom 2: As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease in an initial interaction situation. In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressiveness.
- Axiom 3: High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information-seeking behavior. As uncertainty decline, information-seeking behavior decreases.
- Axiom 4: High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the intimacy level of communication content. Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy.
- Axiom 5: High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocityNorm of reciprocityThe norm of reciprocity is the social expectation that people will respond to each other in kind—returning benefits for benefits, and responding with either indifference or hostility to harms. The social norm of reciprocity often takes different forms in different areas of social life, or in...
. Low levels of uncertainty produce low levels of reciprocity. - Axiom 6: Similarities between persons reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities produce increases in uncertainty.
- Axiom 7: Increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking; decreases in uncertainty produce increases in liking.
- Axiom 8: Shared communication networks reduce uncertainty, while lack of shared networks increases uncertainty.
Berger and Calabrese formulated the following theorems deductively from their axioms:
-
- Theorem 1: The amount of talking and nonverbal communicative expressions are positively related.
- Theorem 2: The amount of communication and its intimacy level is positively related.
- Theorem 3: Time spent in interaction and questions posed are inversely related.
- Theorem 4: Time spent communicating and instance of symmetric exchanges are inversely related.
- Theorem 5: The amount of communication and liking are positively related.
- Theorem 6: The amount of communication and personal similarity are positively related.
- Theorem 7: Nonverbal expressions and intimacy level of conversation are positively related.
- Theorem 8: Nonverbal expressions and information seeking are inversely related.
- Theorem 9: Nonverbal expressions and instance of symmetrical exchange are inversely related.
- Theorem 10: Nonverbal expressions and liking are positively related.
- Theorem 11: Nonverbal expressions and similarity are positively related.
- Theorem 12: The level of communication intimacy and information seeking are inversely related.
- Theorem 13: The level of communication intimacy and instance of symmetrical exchange are inversely related.
- Theorem 14: The level of communication intimacy and liking are positively related.
- Theorem 15: The level of communication intimacy and similarity are positively related.
- Theorem 16: Posing questions and symmetrical exchanges are positively related.
- Theorem 17: Posing questions and liking are negatively related.
- Theorem 18: Posing questions and similarity are negatively related.
- Theorem 19: Instance of symmetrical exchange and liking are negatively related.
- Theorem 20: Instance of symmetrical exchange and similarity are negatively related.
- Theorem 21: Similarity and liking are positively related.
Viewed as a whole, the processes of getting to know someone, as well as if there is liking between the two, can be predicted by examining the interactive phenomena through Uncertainty Reduction Theory’s tenets (Berger & Calabrese, 101–109).
Defense
Eleven years after Uncertainty Reduction Theory was introduced, Berger published Uncertain Outcome Values in Predicted Relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory Then and Now. His aim was to defend his theory in new contexts and modify it, as necessary. Berger later proposed three types of information seeking behavior, passive (watching the interactant for clues in reactions to stimuli), active (posing questions to other individuals about the interactant), and interactive ( posing direct questions to the interactant) (Miller, 178). Later research by Berger and Bradac (1982) indicated that disclosures by interactants may lead them to be judged as more or less attractiveAttractiveness
Attractiveness or attraction refers to a quality that causes an interest or desire in something or someone. The term attraction may also refer to the object of the attraction itself, as in tourist attraction.-Visual attractiveness:...
. The judgment will determine whether the judge will continue to reduce their uncertainties or end the relationship. Berger also acknowledges the works of Gundykunst, et al. (1985) and Parks & Adelman (1983) to extend Uncertainty Reduction Theory to the realm of more established relationships. Planalp & Honeycutt (1985) studies the introduction of new uncertainty to existing relationships. Their findings indicate that uncertainty in long-term relationships usually impacts negatively on the relationship.
Critique
Uncertainty reduction theory has sparked much discussion in the discipline of communication. Critics have argued that reducing uncertainty is not the driving force of interaction. Michael Sunnafrank's predicted outcome value theoryPredicted outcome value theory
Predicted outcome value theory introduced in 1986 by Michael Sunnafrank, posits that people seek information in initial interactions and relationships to determine the benefits of interpersonal relationships by predicting the value of future outcomes whether negative or positive...
(1986) indicated that the actual motivation for interaction is a desire for positive relational experiences. Kellerman and Reynolds (1990) pointed out that sometimes there are high level of uncertainty in interaction that no one wants to reduce (Miller, 180–183).As a result of the critique, researchers formed the Uncertainty Management theory
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management
Anxiety/uncertainty management is a theory developed by Dr. William B. Gudykunst in an attempt to define what makes up effective communication. Gudykunst’s research began in 1985 using existing theories as a starting point...
. This theory contrasts uncertainty reduction theory by identifying reduction as only one of the many actions that people take when uncertainty arises.
Gudykunst (1985) points out that Uncertainty Reduction Theory was formulated to describe the actions and behaviors of middle-class, white strangers in the United States. This is the demographic in the studies Berger and Calabrese used to develop the theory (Gundykunst, 204). Another issue is the scope of the axioms and theorems. If a particular theorem is disproved, it destroys the axiological base upon which it rests.
Contemporary Use
Uncertainty Reduction Theory has been applied to new relationshipInterpersonal relationship
An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the...
s in recent years. Although it continues to be widely respected as a tool to explain and predict initial interaction events, it is now also employed to study intercultural interaction (Gudykunst et al., 1985), organizational socialization
Socialization
Socialization is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political scientists and educationalists to refer to the process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies...
(Lester, 1986), and as a function of media
Media (communication)
In communications, media are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data...
(Katz & Blumer, 1974). Gudykunst argues that it is important to test theory in new paradigm
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
s, thus adding to its fortitude (Gudykunst, 204).