Underlying representation
Encyclopedia
In some models of phonology
as well as morphophonology
, the underlying representation (UR) or underlying form (UF) of a word
or morpheme
is the abstract form the word or morpheme is postulated to have before any phonological rule
s have applied to it. If more rules apply to the same form, they can apply wholly independently of each other or in a feeding
or counterbleeding order. The underlying representation of a morpheme is considered to be invariable across related forms (except in cases of suppletion
), despite alternation
s among various allophone
s on the surface.
In many cases, the underlying form is simply the phonemic
form. For example, in many varieties of American English
the phoneme /t/ in a word like wet can surface either as a glottalized
[tˀ] or as a flap
[ɾ], depending on environment: [ˈwɛtˀ] wet vs. [ˈwɛɾɚ] wetter. In both cases, however, the underlying representation of the morpheme wet is the same: its phonemic form /wɛt/.
In other cases, phonological rules may change the phonemes involved. In such cases, pipes ("|") or double slashes may be used in transcription to distinguish the underlying form from its phonemic realization. An example is the word cats, which has the phonemic representation /ˈkæts/. If we take the underlying form of the English plural suffix to a 'z
' sound, as many phonologists do, then the underlying form would be //ˈkætz//. This discrepancy cannot be avoided by choosing a different underlying form of the plural: If we assume it is an 's
' sound, as it's spelled, then the word dogs, phonemically /ˈdɒɡz/, would have the underlying form //ˈdɒɡs// (in both cases, there has been progressive assimilation of the final segment). As this example illustrates, the underlying form of a morpheme is a theoretical construct, and depends on the analysis that is used.
Sandhi
, such as the tone sandhi
of the Chinese languages, is another phonological process that changes the phonemes of a morpheme from its underlying form.
Phonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
as well as morphophonology
Morphophonology
Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics which studies, in general, the interaction between morphological and phonetic processes. When a morpheme is attached to a word, it can alter the phonetic environments of other morphemes in that word. Morphophonemics attempts to describe this process...
, the underlying representation (UR) or underlying form (UF) of a word
Word
In language, a word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content . This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own...
or morpheme
Morpheme
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest semantically meaningful unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word,...
is the abstract form the word or morpheme is postulated to have before any phonological rule
Phonological rule
A phonological rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or morphophonological process or diachronic sound change in language. Phonological rules are commonly used in generative phonology as a notation to capture sound-related operations and computations the human brain performs...
s have applied to it. If more rules apply to the same form, they can apply wholly independently of each other or in a feeding
Feeding order
In phonology and historical linguistics, if two rules are in feeding order, rule A creates new contexts in which rule B can apply. It would not have been possible for rule B to apply otherwise...
or counterbleeding order. The underlying representation of a morpheme is considered to be invariable across related forms (except in cases of suppletion
Suppletion
In linguistics and etymology, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words are not cognate. For those learning a language, suppletive forms will be seen as "irregular" or even "highly irregular". The term "suppletion" implies...
), despite alternation
Alternation (linguistics)
In linguistics, an alternation is the phenomenon of a phoneme or morpheme exhibiting variation in its phonological realization. Each of the various realizations is called an alternant...
s among various allophone
Allophone
In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, and are allophones for the phoneme in the English language...
s on the surface.
In many cases, the underlying form is simply the phonemic
Phoneme
In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances....
form. For example, in many varieties of American English
American English
American English is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in the United States....
the phoneme /t/ in a word like wet can surface either as a glottalized
Glottalization
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice...
[tˀ] or as a flap
Flap consonant
In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator is thrown against another.-Contrast with stops and trills:...
[ɾ], depending on environment: [ˈwɛtˀ] wet vs. [ˈwɛɾɚ] wetter. In both cases, however, the underlying representation of the morpheme wet is the same: its phonemic form /wɛt/.
In other cases, phonological rules may change the phonemes involved. In such cases, pipes ("|") or double slashes may be used in transcription to distinguish the underlying form from its phonemic realization. An example is the word cats, which has the phonemic representation /ˈkæts/. If we take the underlying form of the English plural suffix to a 'z
Z
Z is the twenty-sixth and final letter of the basic modern Latin alphabet.-Name and pronunciation:In most dialects of English, the letter's name is zed , reflecting its derivation from the Greek zeta but in American English, its name is zee , deriving from a late 17th century English dialectal...
' sound, as many phonologists do, then the underlying form would be //ˈkætz//. This discrepancy cannot be avoided by choosing a different underlying form of the plural: If we assume it is an 's
S
S is the nineteenth letter in the ISO basic Latin alphabet.-History: Semitic Šîn represented a voiceless postalveolar fricative . Greek did not have this sound, so the Greek sigma came to represent...
' sound, as it's spelled, then the word dogs, phonemically /ˈdɒɡz/, would have the underlying form //ˈdɒɡs// (in both cases, there has been progressive assimilation of the final segment). As this example illustrates, the underlying form of a morpheme is a theoretical construct, and depends on the analysis that is used.
Sandhi
Sandhi
Sandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
, such as the tone sandhi
Tone sandhi
Tone sandhi is a feature of tonal languages in which the tones assigned to individual words vary based on the pronunciation of the words that surround them in a phrase or sentence. It is a type of sandhi, or fusional change, from the Sanskrit word for "joining".-Languages with tone sandhi:Not all...
of the Chinese languages, is another phonological process that changes the phonemes of a morpheme from its underlying form.