Uralo-Siberian languages
Encyclopedia
Uralo-Siberian is a hypothetical language family
consisting of Uralic
, Yukaghir
, Chukotko-Kamchatkan
and Eskimo–Aleut. It was proposed in 1998 by Michael Fortescue
, an expert in Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan, in his book Language Relations across Bering Strait. The theory has yet to win wide acceptance.
were observed early. In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wöldike
compared Greenlandic
to
Hungarian
. In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered
Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, Finnish
in particular, and presented
a list of lexical correspondences. (Rask also considered
Uralic and Altaic
to be related to each other.) In 1959,
Knut Bergsland
published the paper The Eskimo–Uralic Hypothesis,
in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of
grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences.
In 1962, Morris Swadesh
proposed a relationship between the
Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families.
In 1998, Michael Fortescue presented more detailed arguments in his
book, Language Relations across Bering Strait. His title evokes Morris Swadesh's 1962 article, "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait".
, while there is a set of voiced (but no voiceless) non-sibilant fricatives with the same places of articulation (labial
, dental, palatal, and velar
; in Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo–Aleut also uvular). There are also nasals
in the same places of articulation. In addition, there are three sibilants, as well as liquids
and semivowels.
the following:
Proponents of the Nostratic
hypothesis consider these apparent correspondences to be evidence in support of the proposed larger Nostratic family.
sets with reflexes in at least three of the four language families, and even more shared by two of the language families. Examples are
*ap(p)a 'grandfather', *kað'a 'mountain' and many others.
Below are some lexical items reconstructed to Proto-Uralo-Siberian, along with their reflexes in Proto-Uralic
, Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan
(sometimes Proto-Chukchi), and Proto-Eskimo–Aleut (sometimes Proto-Eskimo
or Aleut
). (Source: Fortescue 1998:152-158.)
hunting and fishing people in south-central Siberia
(roughly, from the upper Yenisei river to Lake Baikal
) between 8000 and 6000 BC, and that the proto-languages of the derived families may have been carried northward out of this homeland in several successive waves down to about 4000 BC, leaving the Samoyedic
branch of Uralic in occupation of the Urheimat
thereafter.
Language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term 'family' comes from the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a...
consisting of Uralic
Uralic languages
The Uralic languages constitute a language family of some three dozen languages spoken by approximately 25 million people. The healthiest Uralic languages in terms of the number of native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Mari and Udmurt...
, Yukaghir
Yukaghir languages
The Yukaghir languages are a small family of two closely related languages – Tundra and Kolyma Yukaghir – spoken by the Yukaghir in the Russian Far East living in the basin of the Kolyma River. According to the 2002 Russian census, both Yukaghir languages taken together have 604 speakers...
, Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
The Chukotko-Kamchatkan or Chukchi–Kamchatkan languages are a language family of extreme northeastern Siberia. Its speakers are indigenous hunter-gatherers and reindeer-herders....
and Eskimo–Aleut. It was proposed in 1998 by Michael Fortescue
Michael Fortescue
Michael David Fortescue is a British-born linguist specializing in Arctic and native North American languages, including Kalaallisut, Inuktun, Chukchi and Nitinaht. He is professor of General Linguistics at the University of Copenhagen and chairman of the Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen...
, an expert in Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan, in his book Language Relations across Bering Strait. The theory has yet to win wide acceptance.
History
Structural similarities between Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut languageswere observed early. In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wöldike
compared Greenlandic
Kalaallisut language
Greenlandic is an Eskimo–Aleut language spoken by about 57,000 people in Greenland. It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada, such as Inuktitut...
to
Hungarian
Hungarian language
Hungarian is a Uralic language, part of the Ugric group. With some 14 million speakers, it is one of the most widely spoken non-Indo-European languages in Europe....
. In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered
Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, Finnish
Finnish language
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland Primarily for use by restaurant menus and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a...
in particular, and presented
a list of lexical correspondences. (Rask also considered
Uralic and Altaic
Altaic languages
Altaic is a proposed language family that includes the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and Japonic language families and the Korean language isolate. These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from northeast Asia through Central Asia to Anatolia and eastern Europe...
to be related to each other.) In 1959,
Knut Bergsland
Knut Bergsland
Knut Bergsland was a Norwegian linguist. Working as a professor at the University of Oslo from 1947 to 1981, he did groundbreaking research in Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut languages.-Career:...
published the paper The Eskimo–Uralic Hypothesis,
in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of
grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences.
In 1962, Morris Swadesh
Morris Swadesh
Morris Swadesh was an influential and controversial American linguist. In his work, he applied basic concepts in historical linguistics to the Indigenous languages of the Americas...
proposed a relationship between the
Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families.
In 1998, Michael Fortescue presented more detailed arguments in his
book, Language Relations across Bering Strait. His title evokes Morris Swadesh's 1962 article, "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait".
Phonology
The consonant inventories of the reconstructed proto-languages of the four Uralo-Siberian families are very similar to each other. A common feature is that there are only voiceless and no voiced stopsStop consonant
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
, while there is a set of voiced (but no voiceless) non-sibilant fricatives with the same places of articulation (labial
Labial consonant
Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
, dental, palatal, and velar
Velar consonant
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
; in Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo–Aleut also uvular). There are also nasals
Nasal consonant
A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...
in the same places of articulation. In addition, there are three sibilants, as well as liquids
Liquid consonant
In phonetics, liquids or liquid consonants are a class of consonants consisting of lateral consonants together with rhotics.-Description:...
and semivowels.
Morphology
Apparently shared elements of Uralo-Siberian morphology includethe following:
| *-t | plural |
| *-k | dual |
| *m- | 1st person |
| *t- | 2nd person |
| *ka | interrogative pronoun |
| *-n | genitive case |
Proponents of the Nostratic
Nostratic languages
Nostratic is a proposed language family that includes many of the indigenous language families of Eurasia, including the Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic as well as Kartvelian languages...
hypothesis consider these apparent correspondences to be evidence in support of the proposed larger Nostratic family.
Lexicon
Fortescue (1998) lists 94 lexical correspondenceLexical correspondence
A lexical correspondence is a set of cognate words or morphemes in two or more related languages. In order to form such a correspondence, it is not sufficient that the words are similar in both form and meaning, but that regular sound correspondences occur between the phonemes contained in the words....
sets with reflexes in at least three of the four language families, and even more shared by two of the language families. Examples are
*ap(p)a 'grandfather', *kað'a 'mountain' and many others.
Below are some lexical items reconstructed to Proto-Uralo-Siberian, along with their reflexes in Proto-Uralic
Proto-Uralic language
Proto-Uralic is the hypothetical language ancestral to the Uralic language family. The language was originally spoken in a small area in about 7000-2000 BC , and expanded to give differentiated protolanguages. The exact location of the area or Urheimat is not known, but the vicinity of the Ural...
, Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan language
Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.A reconstructed version of the language is presented by Michael Fortescue in his Comparative Dictionary of Chukotko-Kamchatkan .- Phonology :...
(sometimes Proto-Chukchi), and Proto-Eskimo–Aleut (sometimes Proto-Eskimo
Proto-Eskimo language
Proto-Eskimo was the ancestor of all the Eskimo languages. A reconstruction of the Proto-Eskimo sound system can be found in Fortescue et al. 1994:xi.- References :...
or Aleut
Aleut language
Aleut is a language of the Eskimo–Aleut language family. It is the heritage language of the Aleut people living in the Aleutian Islands, Pribilof Islands, and Commander Islands. As of 2007 there were about 150 speakers of Aleut .- Dialects :Aleut is alone with the Eskimo languages in the...
). (Source: Fortescue 1998:152-158.)
| Proto-Uralo-Siberian | Proto-Uralic | Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan | Proto-Eskimo–Aleut |
| aj(aɣ)- 'push forward' | aja- 'drive, chase' | aj-tat- 'chase, herd' (PC) | ajaɣ- 'push, thrust at with pole' |
| ap(p)a 'grandfather' | appe 'father in law' | æpæ 'grandfather' | ap(p)a 'grandfather' |
| el(l)ä 'not' | elä 'not' | ællæ 'not' (PC) | -la(ɣ)- 'not' (A) |
| pit(uɣ)- 'tie up' | pitV- 'tie' (FU) | pət- 'tie up' | pətuɣ- 'tie up' |
| toɣə- 'take' | toɣe- 'bring, take, give' (FU) | teɣiŋrə- 'pull out' | teɣu- 'take' (PE) |
Urheimat
Fortescue argues that the Uralo-Siberian proto-language (or a complex of related proto-languages) may have been spoken by MesolithicMesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
hunting and fishing people in south-central Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
(roughly, from the upper Yenisei river to Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal is the world's oldest at 30 million years old and deepest lake with an average depth of 744.4 metres.Located in the south of the Russian region of Siberia, between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast, it is the most voluminous freshwater lake in the...
) between 8000 and 6000 BC, and that the proto-languages of the derived families may have been carried northward out of this homeland in several successive waves down to about 4000 BC, leaving the Samoyedic
Samoyedic languages
The Samoyedic languages are spoken on both sides of the Ural mountains, in northernmost Eurasia, by approximately 30,000 speakers altogether....
branch of Uralic in occupation of the Urheimat
Urheimat
Urheimat is a linguistic term denoting the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language...
thereafter.
Relationships
Some or all of the four Uralo-Siberian families have been included in more extensive groupings of languages (see links below). Fortescue's hypothesis does not oppose or exclude these various proposals. In particular, he considers that a remote relationship between Uralo-Siberian and Altaic (or some part of Altaic) is likely. However, Fortescue holds that Uralo-Siberian lies within the bounds of the provable, whereas Nostratic may be too remote a grouping to ever be convincingly demonstrated.Works cited
- Bergsland, Knut. 1959. "The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis." Journal de la Societé finno-ougrienne 61, 1-29.
- Fortescue, Michael. 1998. Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London and New York: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-70330-3.
- Seefloth, Uwe. 2000. Die Entstehung polypersonaler Paradigmen im Uralo-Siberischen. Zentralasiatische Studien 30, 163-191.
- Swadesh, Morris. 1962. "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait." American Anthropologist 64, 1262-1291.
Further reading
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000. Review of Michael Fortescue, Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. Review of Archaeology 21.2, 23-24.
- Künnap, A. 1999. Indo-European-Uralic-Siberian Linguistic and Cultural Contacts. Tartu, Estonia: University of Tartu, Division of Uralic languages.
See also
- Eskimo–Uralic languages
- Eurasiatic languagesEurasiatic languagesEurasiatic is a language macrofamily proposed by Joseph Greenberg that includes many language families historically spoken in northern Eurasia. The eight branches of Eurasiatic are Etruscan, Indo-European, Uralic–Yukaghir, Altaic, Korean-Japanese-Ainu, Gilyak, Chukotian, and Eskimo–Aleut, spoken in...
- Indo-Uralic languagesIndo-Uralic languagesIndo-Uralic is a proposed language family consisting of Indo-European and Uralic.A genetic relationship between Indo-European and Uralic was first proposed by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in 1869 but was received with little enthusiasm...
- Nostratic languagesNostratic languagesNostratic is a proposed language family that includes many of the indigenous language families of Eurasia, including the Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic as well as Kartvelian languages...
- Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan languageProto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan languageProto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.A reconstructed version of the language is presented by Michael Fortescue in his Comparative Dictionary of Chukotko-Kamchatkan .- Phonology :...
- Proto-Uralic languageProto-Uralic languageProto-Uralic is the hypothetical language ancestral to the Uralic language family. The language was originally spoken in a small area in about 7000-2000 BC , and expanded to give differentiated protolanguages. The exact location of the area or Urheimat is not known, but the vicinity of the Ural...
- Ural–Altaic languages
- Uralic–Yukaghir languages
External links
- Linguistlist post about Uralo-Eskimo grammar as reconstructed by Uwe Seefloth, who finds Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut to be each other's closest relatives within Uralo-Siberian
- Discussion of the above and comparisons to Indo-EuropeanIndo-European languagesThe Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia...
- More discussion of the above
- Discussion of the above and comparisons to Indo-European
- "Nivkh as a Uralo-Siberian language" by Frederik Kortlandt (2004)
- "Indo-Uralic and Altaic" by Frederik Kortlandt (2006)
- "Chukcho-Kamchatkan and Uralic: Evidence of their genetic relationship" by Václav Blažek (2006)