Wallachian subdialect of Romanian
Encyclopedia
The Wallachian subdialect (subdialectul / graiul muntean / muntenesc) is one of the several subdialects of the Romanian language
, specifically of the Daco-Romanian
dialect. Its geographic distribution covers approximately the historical region of Wallachia
, occupying the southern part of Romania
, roughly between the Danube
and the Southern Carpathians
. The standard Romanian, in particular its phonology
, is largely based on this subdialect.
As with all other subdialects of Romanian, the Wallachian one is distinguished primarily by its phonetic characteristics and only marginally by morphological, syntactical, and lexical features.
The Wallachian subdialect is the only member of the southern grouping of Romanian subdialects. All the other subdialects and speech varieties are classified in the northern grouping, whose most typical representative is the Moldavian subdialect
.
The Wallachian and the Moldavian subdialects are the only two that have been consistently identified and recognized by linguists. They are clearly distinguished in dialect classifications made by Heimann Tiktin, Mozes Gaster, Gustav Weigand
, Sextil Pușcariu, Sever Pop, Emil Petrovici
, Romulus Todoran, Ion Coteanu, Alexandru Philippide, Iorgu Iordan
, Emanuel Vasiliu, and others, whereas the remainder of subdialects and speech varieties have proven to be considerably more controversial and difficult to classify.
, in the region of Wallachia
. More accurately, it covers the following counties
:
The most typical features of the Wallachian subdialect are found in the central part of this area, specifically in the following counties: Argeș
, Călărași
, Dîmbovița
, Giurgiu
, Ialomița
, Olt
, and Teleorman
.
For instance, Sextil Pușcariu and others consider a separate speech variety in Oltenia
. This has very few distinct features – such as the extensive use of the simple perfect tense – and is most often considered a transition speech variety from the Wallachian to the Banat subdialect.
Even less distinct is the particular speech variety of Dobrogea. This too is often considered a transition variety, between the Wallachian and the Moldavian subdialects.
Standard Romanian: Se duc părinții copilului la moașă cu copilul. Duc plocon pîine, vin, carne, țuică. Și moașa îi pune un covrig în cap și-l saltă-n sus, îl dă de grinda casei și zice: Să trăiască nepotul și părinții!
English translation: "The child's parents go to the midwife with the child. They bring as a present bread, wine, meat, țuică
. And the midwife puts a pretzel on his head and hoists him up, touches him to the house's girder, and says: Long live the child and his parents!"
Romanian language
Romanian Romanian Romanian (or Daco-Romanian; obsolete spellings Rumanian, Roumanian; self-designation: română, limba română ("the Romanian language") or românește (lit. "in Romanian") is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova...
, specifically of the Daco-Romanian
Daco-Romanian
Daco-Romanian is the term used to identify the Romanian language in contexts where distinction needs to be made between the various Eastern Romance languages...
dialect. Its geographic distribution covers approximately the historical region of Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
, occupying the southern part of Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, roughly between the Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
and the Southern Carpathians
Southern Carpathians
The Southern Carpathians or the Transylvanian Alps are a group of mountain ranges which divide central and southern Romania, on one side, and Serbia, on the other side. They cover part of the Carpathian Mountains that is located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers...
. The standard Romanian, in particular its phonology
Romanian phonology
This article discusses the phonology of the Romanian language. For other details on this language the reader is referred to that article....
, is largely based on this subdialect.
As with all other subdialects of Romanian, the Wallachian one is distinguished primarily by its phonetic characteristics and only marginally by morphological, syntactical, and lexical features.
The Wallachian subdialect is the only member of the southern grouping of Romanian subdialects. All the other subdialects and speech varieties are classified in the northern grouping, whose most typical representative is the Moldavian subdialect
Moldavian subdialect of Romanian
The Moldavian subdialect is one of the several subdialects of the Romanian language...
.
The Wallachian and the Moldavian subdialects are the only two that have been consistently identified and recognized by linguists. They are clearly distinguished in dialect classifications made by Heimann Tiktin, Mozes Gaster, Gustav Weigand
Gustav Weigand
Gustav Weigand , was a German linguist and specialist in Balkan languages, especially Rumanian and Aromanian. He is known for his seminal contributions to the dialectology of the Romance languages of the Balkans and to the study of the relationships between the languages of the Balkan...
, Sextil Pușcariu, Sever Pop, Emil Petrovici
Emil Petrovici
Emil Petrovici was a Romanian linguist, who studied both Romanian and the Slavic languages. His studies included Romanian phonetics, phonology, and Romanian and Slavic dialectology....
, Romulus Todoran, Ion Coteanu, Alexandru Philippide, Iorgu Iordan
Iorgu Iordan
Iorgu Iordan was a Romanian linguist, philologist, diplomat, journalist, and left-wing agrarian, later communist, politician. The author of works on a large variety of topics, most of them dealing with issues of the Romanian language and Romance languages in general, he was elected a full member...
, Emanuel Vasiliu, and others, whereas the remainder of subdialects and speech varieties have proven to be considerably more controversial and difficult to classify.
Geographic distribution
The Wallachian subdialect is spoken in the southern part of RomaniaRomania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, in the region of Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
. More accurately, it covers the following counties
Counties of Romania
The 41 judeţe and the municipality of Bucharest comprise the official administrative divisions of Romania. They also represent the European Union' s NUTS-3 geocode statistical subdivision scheme of Romania.-Overview:...
:
- in MunteniaMunteniaMuntenia is a historical province of Romania, usually considered Wallachia-proper . It is situated between the Danube , the Carpathian Mountains and Moldavia , and the Olt River to the west...
: ArgeșArges CountyArgeș is a county of Romania, in Wallachia, with the capital city at Pitești.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 652,625 and the population density was 95/km².*Romanians – 96%*Roma , and other.-Geography:...
, BrăilaBraila CountyBrăila is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Brăila.- Demographics :In 2002, Brăila had a population of 373,174 and the population density was 78/km².*Romanians – 98%*Romas, Russians, Lipovans, Aromanians and others....
(southern half), BuzăuBuzau CountyBuzău is a county of Romania, in the historical region Muntenia, with the capital city at Buzău.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 496,214 and the population density was 81/km².*Romanians – 97%*Roma – under 3% declared, and others....
(southern half), CălărașiCalarasi CountyCălărași is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the county seat at Călărași.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 324,617 and a population density of 64/km².*Romanians – 95%*Roma and others.-List of cities by population:...
, DîmbovițaDâmbovita CountyDâmbovița ; also spelt Dîmbovița is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Târgoviște.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 541,763 and the population density was 134/km²...
, GiurgiuGiurgiu CountyGiurgiu is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Giurgiu.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 297,859 and the population density was 84/km².* Romanians – over 96%* Roma – 3.5%, and others.- Geography :...
, IalomițaIalomita CountyIalomița is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Slobozia.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 296,572 and the population density was 67/km²....
, IlfovIlfov CountyIlfov is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but after the fall of communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, which act like suburbs or satellites of Bucharest...
and BucharestBucharestBucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....
, PrahovaPrahova CountyPrahova is a county of Romania, in the historical region Muntenia, with the capital city at Ploieşti.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 829,945 and the population density was 176/km². It is Romania's most populated county, having a population density double than the country's mean...
, TeleormanTeleorman CountyTeleorman is a county of Romania, in the historical region Muntenia, with its capital city at Alexandria.The name Teleorman is of Cumanic origin. It literally means crazy forest and, by extension, "thick and shadowy forest" in the Cuman language...
; - in OlteniaOlteniaOltenia is a historical province and geographical region of Romania, in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Danube, the Southern Carpathians and the Olt river ....
: DoljDolj CountyDolj -Jiu, "lower Jiu", toward Gorj ) is a county of Romania, in Oltenia, with the capital city at Craiova .- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 734,231 and a population density of 99/km²....
, GorjGorj CountyGorj is a county of Romania, in Oltenia, with its capital city at Târgu Jiu.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 387,308 and its population density was 69/km².* Romanians – over 98%* Rromas, others.- Geography :...
(eastern part), MehedințiMehedinti CountyMehedinţi is a county of Romania. It is mostly located in the historical province of Oltenia, with one municipality and three communes located in the Banat...
(eastern part), OltOlt CountyOlt is a county of Romania, in the historical regions of Oltenia and Muntenia . The capital city is Slatina.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 489,274 and the population density was 89/km²....
, VîlceaVâlcea CountyVâlcea is a county of Romania, in the historical regions of Oltenia and Muntenia...
; - in Dobrogea: ConstanțaConstanta CountyConstanța is the name of a county in the Dobruja region of Romania. Its capital city is also named Constanța.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 715,151 and the population density was 101/km². The degree of urbanization is much higher than the Romanian average. In recent years the...
and the southern half of the Tulcea CountyTulcea CountyTulcea is a county of Romania, in the historical region Dobruja, with the capital city at Tulcea.-Demographics:In 2002, Tulcea County had a population of 256,492...
(in the northern half the Moldavian subdialectMoldavian subdialect of RomanianThe Moldavian subdialect is one of the several subdialects of the Romanian language...
is spoken). - in southern TransylvaniaTransylvaniaTransylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
: BrașovBrasov CountyBrașov ; ) is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Brașov. The county incorporates within its boundaries most of the Medieval "lands" Burzenland and Făgăraș Land.-Demographics:...
and the southern part of the Sibiu CountySibiu CountySibiu is a county of Romania, in the historical region Transylvania, with the capital city Sibiu.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 421,724 and the population density was 78/km²....
.
The most typical features of the Wallachian subdialect are found in the central part of this area, specifically in the following counties: Argeș
Arges County
Argeș is a county of Romania, in Wallachia, with the capital city at Pitești.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 652,625 and the population density was 95/km².*Romanians – 96%*Roma , and other.-Geography:...
, Călărași
Calarasi County
Călărași is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the county seat at Călărași.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 324,617 and a population density of 64/km².*Romanians – 95%*Roma and others.-List of cities by population:...
, Dîmbovița
Dâmbovita County
Dâmbovița ; also spelt Dîmbovița is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Târgoviște.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 541,763 and the population density was 134/km²...
, Giurgiu
Giurgiu County
Giurgiu is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Giurgiu.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 297,859 and the population density was 84/km².* Romanians – over 96%* Roma – 3.5%, and others.- Geography :...
, Ialomița
Ialomita County
Ialomița is a county of Romania, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Slobozia.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 296,572 and the population density was 67/km²....
, Olt
Olt County
Olt is a county of Romania, in the historical regions of Oltenia and Muntenia . The capital city is Slatina.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 489,274 and the population density was 89/km²....
, and Teleorman
Teleorman County
Teleorman is a county of Romania, in the historical region Muntenia, with its capital city at Alexandria.The name Teleorman is of Cumanic origin. It literally means crazy forest and, by extension, "thick and shadowy forest" in the Cuman language...
.
Influences from the neighboring areas
The subdialects spoken in the neighboring areas have influenced the Wallachian subdialect, thus creating transition speech varieties, as follows:- in the north-eastern edge there is an influence from the Moldavian subdialectMoldavian subdialect of RomanianThe Moldavian subdialect is one of the several subdialects of the Romanian language...
; - in the northern area, across the southern Carpathian mountainsSouthern CarpathiansThe Southern Carpathians or the Transylvanian Alps are a group of mountain ranges which divide central and southern Romania, on one side, and Serbia, on the other side. They cover part of the Carpathian Mountains that is located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers...
, influences from the central and southern Transylvanian speech varieties are found; - in the north-western part, influences are felt from the Banat subdialectBanat subdialect of RomanianThe Banat subdialect is one of the several subdialects of the Romanian language, specifically of the Daco-Romanian dialect...
and the Hațeg CountryHategHațeg is a town in Hunedoara County, Romania with a population of 12,507. Three villages are administered by the town: Nălațvad, Silvașu de Jos and Silvașu de Sus.Țara Hațegului is the region around Hațeg town...
speech varieties.
Subdivisions
Some researchers further divide the Wallachian subdialect into finer speech varieties. This division, however, can no longer rely on clear and systematic phonetic features, but on morphological, syntactical, and lexical differences.For instance, Sextil Pușcariu and others consider a separate speech variety in Oltenia
Oltenia
Oltenia is a historical province and geographical region of Romania, in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Danube, the Southern Carpathians and the Olt river ....
. This has very few distinct features – such as the extensive use of the simple perfect tense – and is most often considered a transition speech variety from the Wallachian to the Banat subdialect.
Even less distinct is the particular speech variety of Dobrogea. This too is often considered a transition variety, between the Wallachian and the Moldavian subdialects.
Phonetic features
The Wallachian subdialect has the following phonetic particularities that contrast it with the other subdialects and varieties. Many of these phonetic features are also found in the standard pronunciation of Romanian.- The postalveolars [t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ] are preserved: [t͡ʃiˈreʃe, ˈd͡ʒemete].
- Contrast is made between the affricate [d͡ʒ] and the fricative [ʒ].
- Except in Oltenia, after the dentals [s, z, t͡s], the vowels [e, i] and the diphthong [e̯a] are preserved: [semn, sinɡur, ˈse̯arə, zer, zid, ˈze̯amə, t͡ses, t͡siw, ˈt͡se̯apə]. This occurs simultaneously with a slight palatalization of those dentals.
- After the fricatives [ʃ, ʒ] and after [r], the vowel [ə] changes to [e]: [ˈuʃe, ˈstraʒe, t͡siˈɡare]. The two fricatives are pronounced slightly palatalized.
- The diphthong [o̯a] is preserved: [ˈdo̯are ˈko̯aʒe].
- The diphthong [e̯a] in old Romanian becomes [e] in certain phonetic contexts: [ˈled͡ʒe ˈmese ˈsemne]. (It remains [e̯a] when it is followed by a consonant or a consonant cluster and then by [ə], as in [ˈle̯aɡə ˈkre̯at͡sə].)
- The front vowel ending is anticipated by inserting [j] in the words [ˈkɨjne ˈmɨjne ˈpɨjne].
- The labials [p b f v] remain unchanged before front vowels and [j]: [piˈt͡ʃor alˈbinə ˈfjerbe ˈvitə]. In some areas of the subdialect, palatalized labials can be found today, but these appeared as a consequence of recent population migrations.
- The dentals [t d n] do not change before front vowels and glides: [ˈkarte ˈte̯amə de̯al dimiˈne̯at͡sə].
- A devocalized [u] is found at the end of some words: [omʷ, pomʷ] for om, pom.
- In word-initial position sometimes [h] is pronounced weakly or completely removed: [ˈajnə, wot͡s] for haină, hoț. Hypercorrection sometimes leads to adding a word-initial [h]: [ˈharipə, ˈhale̯a, ˈhalbij] for aripă, alea, albii.
- In Muntenia, after [d] and [p], [e] is replaced with [ə] and [i] with [ɨ] in prepositions and prefixes: [də, dəˈkɨt, dəstuˈpat, dəsˈpart, dəʃˈkid, ˈdɨntre, pə] for standard de, decît, destupat, despart, deschid, dintre, pe.
- In north-eastern and eastern Muntenia, labials followed by front sounds are palatalized: [ˈpʰʲjele, ˈbʰʲine, fʰʲjer, vʰʲin, ˈmʲjere] for piele, bine, fier, vin, miere.
- In Oltenia, like in the Banat subdialect, after the fricatives [s, z, ʃ, ʒ] and the affricate [t͡s], [e] becomes [ə], [i] becomes [ɨ], and [e̯a] reduces to [a]: [ˈsarə, səˈkure, ˈsɨnɡur, zɨk, zər, ˈzamə, ʒɨr, t͡sapə, t͡sɨw, t͡səˈpuʃ] for seară, secure, singur, zic, zer, zeamă, jir, țeapă, țin, țepușă.
- In Oltenia, [j] is inserted before [k] when this is palatalized or followed by a front vowel: [wojkʲ, rajˈkiw, ˈstrajkinə] for standard ochi, rachiu, strachină.
- In southern Oltenia, a particular type of palatalization occurs when labial fricatives are followed by front vowels: [f] becomes [fkʲ] or even [skʲ], and similarly [v] becomes [vɡʲ] or [zɡʲ]: [fkʲer / skʲer, ˈvɡʲerme / ˈzɡʲerme] for fier, vierme.
Morphological and syntactical features
- The possessive article is variable: al, a, ai, ale (the same as in standard Romanian). It is invariable in all other subdialects.
- When the object of a verb is another verb, the latter is in its subjunctive form: vreau să plec, știe să înoate ("I want to leave, he knows how to swim").
- The following subjunctive forms are found: să stea, să dea, să bea, să ia, să vrea.
- The following imperative forms are found: adu, vino.
- Feminine names in the vocative case end in -o: Leano, Anico.
- An additional vowel alternation occurs from [a] to [ə] to mark the plural.
- Verbs of the 2nd conjugation group tend to switch the 3rd, and vice versa: a cade, a place, a vede, and a cusea, a țesea ("to fall, like, see; sew, weave", compare with standard a cădea, a plăcea, a vedea, and a coase, a țese).
- The imperfect of verbs in the 3rd person plural ends in [a] in Muntenia and [aw] in Oltenia: ei lucra vs ei lucrau ("they were working", compare with standard ei lucrau). This makes the Muntenian plural homonymous with the singular in the 3rd person.
- The syllable -ră- in the plural forms of the pluperfect is dropped: noi cîntasem, voi cîntaseți, ei cîntase ("we / you / they had sung", compare with standard noi cîntaserăm, voi cîntaserăți, ei cîntaseră).
- In Muntenia, an additional -ără is attached to the compound perfect of verbs: am cîntatără, am făcutără ("I / we sang", compare with standard am cîntat, am făcut).
- In Muntenia, the present indicative, the subjunctive, and the gerund of some verbs have [j] or [i] instead of the last consonant in the root: eu cei, eu spui, eu să spui, eu țîu, eu viu, ceind, țîind, viind (compare with standard eu cer, eu spun, eu să spun, eu țin, eu vin, cerînd, ținînd, venind).
- In Oltenia, the simple perfect is frequently used in all persons and reflects the aspect of a recently finished action. For speakers of other Romanian subdialects, this is by far the single most known particularity of the Oltenian speech, which most readily identifies its speakers.
- In Oltenia, feminine nouns ending in -ă tend to form the plurals with the ending -i to avoid the homonymy that would occur in nouns whose root ends in [s, z, ʃ, ʒ, t͡s, d͡z]: casă – căși ("house – houses", compare with standard casă – case).
- In Oltenia, the demonstrative adjective ăștea is invariable: băieții ăștea, fetele ăștea, drumurile ăștea ("these boys / girls / roads", compare with standard aceștia / acestea and colloquial ăștia / astea).
- In Oltenia, verbs of the 4th conjugation group don't take the infix -esc- in their indicative and subjunctive forms: amoárte, se pérpele, să jéluie, ciugoále, jumoále (compare with standard amorțește, se perpelește, să jelească, ciugulește, jumulește).
- In Oltenia, the adverb decît is used without negation: Are decît un copil ("She has only one child", compare with standard Nu are decît un copil). This phenomenon is also increasingly found in Muntenia.
Lexical particularities
- The demonstrative article is ăl, a, ăi, ăle in Muntenia, and al, a, ai, ale in Oltenia (compare with standard cel, cea, cei, cele).
- An intermediate polite pronoun is found: tale, tălică ("you", standard Romanian has tu, dumneata, and dumneavoastră on a three-stage scale of increasing politeness).
- Demonstrative adverbs use the emphasis particle -șa: aicișa, icișa, acoloșa, coloșa, coleașa (compare with standard aici, acolo).
- There is a tendency to add the prefix -în/îm to verbs: a îngăuri, a se împlimba, a împarfuma ("to drill, walk, scent", compare with standard a găuri, a se plimba, a parfuma).
- In Oltenia, the derivation with the sufix -ete is very productive: brabete ("male sparrow", standard vrăbioi), unghete ("corner", unghi), dovlete ("pumpkin", dovleac). It also appears in proper names: Ciuculete, Ionete, Purcărete.
- Other specific words: drugă ("corn cob", standard știulete), clupsă ("mouse trap", cursă de șoareci), tron ("coffin", sicriu), sacsie ("flower pot", ghiveci), dul ("swelling", umflătură), etc.
Sample
Wallachian subdialect: [sə ˈdut͡ʃe pəˈrint͡sɨ koˈpiluluj la ˈmo̯aʃə ku koˈpilu ‖ ˈdut͡ʃe ploˈkon ˈpɨjne vʲin ˈkarne t͡sujkə ‖ ʃɨ ˈmo̯aʃa ɨj ˈpune uŋ kʷoˈvriɡ ɨŋ kap ʃɨl ˈsaltə̃ sus ɨl də də ˈɡrinda ˈkasɨ ʃɨ zɨt͡ʃe ‖ sə trəˈjaskə neˈpotu ʃɨ pəˈrint͡sɨ]Standard Romanian: Se duc părinții copilului la moașă cu copilul. Duc plocon pîine, vin, carne, țuică. Și moașa îi pune un covrig în cap și-l saltă-n sus, îl dă de grinda casei și zice: Să trăiască nepotul și părinții!
English translation: "The child's parents go to the midwife with the child. They bring as a present bread, wine, meat, țuică
Tuica
Ţuică is a traditional Romanian spirit of somewhere in between 45%-60% alcohol by volume. It is usually made from plums.Ţuică is the official name for the drink when it is prepared only from plums...
. And the midwife puts a pretzel on his head and hoists him up, touches him to the house's girder, and says: Long live the child and his parents!"