Walter Bedell Smith
Encyclopedia
Walter Bedell "Beetle" Smith (5 October 1895 – 9 August 1961) was a senior United States Army
general
who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower
's chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters
during the Tunisia Campaign
and the Allied invasion of Italy
. Later he was Eisenhower's chief of staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
(SHAEF) from 1944 to 1945.
Smith enlisted as a private
in the Indiana National Guard
in 1911. During World War I
he was commissioned as an officer in 1917 and wounded in the Aisne-Marne Offensive in 1918. After the war he was a staff officer and an instructor at the United States Army Infantry School
. In 1941 he became Secretary of the General Staff. The next year he became Secretary to the Combined Chiefs of Staff
. His duties involved participation in discussions at the highest level, and Smith often briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt
on strategic matters.
Smith became chief of staff to Eisenhower at Allied Forces Headquarters
(AFHQ) in September 1942. He acquired a reputation as Eisenhower's "hatchet man
" for his brusque and demanding manner. However, he was also capable of representing Eisenhower on sensitive missions requiring diplomatic skill. Smith was involved in negotiating the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces, which he signed on behalf of Eisenhower. In 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
(SHAEF), again under Eisenhower. He successfully negotiated food aid for the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country, and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in Holland. In May 1945 he met with the representatives of the German High Command to negotiate the surrender of the German Armed Forces.
After the war he served as Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948. He became Director of Central Intelligence
, the head of the Central Intelligence Agency
, in 1950. Smith reorganized the agency, redefined its structure and mission, and gave it a new sense of purpose. He made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for covert operations. He left the CIA in 1953 to become Under Secretary of State
. After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954, Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts.
, on 5 October 1895, the eldest of two sons of William Long Smith, a silk buyer for the Pettis Dry Goods Company, and his wife Ida Francis née Bedell, who worked for the same company. Smith was known as Bedell from childhood. From an early age he was nicknamed "Beetle", or occasionally "Beedle" or "Boodle". He was educated at St. Peter and Paul School, public schools #10 and #29, Oliver Perry Morton School, and Emmerich Manual High School
, where he trained as a machinist. While still there, he took a job at the National Motor Vehicle Company, and eventually left high school without graduating. Smith enrolled at Butler University
but his father developed serious health problems, and Smith left university to return to his job and support his family.
In 1911, at the age of 16, Smith enlisted as a private
in Company D of the 2nd Indiana Infantry of the Indiana National Guard
. The Indiana National Guard was called out twice in 1913, for the 1913 Ohio flood and a streetcar strike. Smith was promoted to corporal
and then sergeant
. During the Pancho Villa Expedition
he served on the staff of the Indiana National Guard. In 1913 he met Mary Eleanor (Nory) Cline, and they were married in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding ceremony on 1 July 1917. Their marriage was of long duration but produced no children.
. Upon graduation on 27 November 1917, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant
. He was then posted to the newly formed Company A, 1st Battalion, 39th Infantry, part of the 4th Division at Camp Greene
, North Carolina
. The 4th Division embarked for Europe, then embroiled in World War I
, from Hoboken, New Jersey
, on 9 May 1918, reaching Brest, France
, on 23 May. After training with the British and French Armies, the 4th Division entered the line
in June 1918, joining the Aisne-Marne Offensive on 18 July 1918. Smith was wounded by shell fragments in an attack two days later.
Smith was returned to the United States for service with the War Department
General Staff and was assigned to the Military Intelligence Division. In September 1918, he was commissioned as a first lieutenant
in the Regular Army. He was then sent to the newly formed 379th Infantry as its intelligence officer. This regiment was part of the 95th Division, based at Camp Sherman, Ohio
. The 95th Division was disbanded following the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, and in February 1919 Smith was posted to Camp Dodge
, Iowa
, where he was involved with the disposal of surplus equipment and supplies. In March 1919 he was transferred to the 2nd Infantry
, a regular unit based at Camp Dodge, remaining there until November 1919, when it moved to Camp Sherman.
, in 1921. In 1922, Smith became aide de camp to Brigadier General
George Van Horn Moseley
, the commander of the 12th Infantry Brigade at Fort Sheridan. From 1925 to 1929 Smith worked as an assistant in the Bureau of the Budget. He then served a two-year tour of duty overseas on the staff of the 45th Infantry
at Fort William McKinley
in the Philippines
. After nine years as a first lieutenant, he was promoted to captain in September 1929.
Returning to the United States, Smith reported to the United States Army Infantry School
at Fort Benning, Georgia, in March 1931. Upon graduation in June 1932, he stayed on as an instructor in the Weapons Section, where he was responsible for demonstrating weapons like the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. In 1933 he was sent to the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth
, Kansas
. Afterward, he returned to the Infantry School but was detached again to attend the Army War College, from which he graduated in 1937. He returned to the Infantry School once more, where he was promoted to major
on 1 January 1939 after nine years as a captain. Such slow promotion was common in the Army in the 1920s and 1930s. Officers like Smith who were commissioned between November 1916 and November 1918 made up 55.6 percent of the Army's officers in 1926. Promotions were usually based on seniority, and the modest objective of promoting officers to major after seventeen years of service could not be met owing to a shortage of posts for them to fill.
in September 1939, he brought Smith to Washington, DC, to be the Assistant to the Secretary of the General Staff. The Secretary of the General Staff was primarily concerned with records, paperwork and the collection of statistics, but also performed a great deal of analysis, liaison and administration. One of Smith's duties was liaison with Major General
Edwin "Pa" Watson, the Senior Military Aide to President Franklin D. Roosevelt
. Smith was promoted to lieutenant colonel
on 4 May 1941 and then colonel
on 30 August 1941. On 1 September, the Secretary of the General Staff, Colonel Orlando Ward
, was given command of the 1st Armored Division
and Smith became Secretary of the General Staff.
The Arcadia Conference
, which was held in Washington, DC, December 1941 and January 1942, mandated the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
as a counterpart to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee
, and Smith was named its secretary on 23 January 1942. The same conference also saw the creation of the Combined Chiefs of Staff
, which consisted of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Chiefs of Staff Committee meeting as a single body. Brigadier
Vivian Dykes
of the British Joint Staff Mission initially provided the secretarial arrangements for the new organization but Marshall felt that an American secretariat was required, and appointed Smith as secretary of the Combined Chiefs as well as of the Joint Chiefs. Since Dykes was senior to Smith, and Marshall wanted Smith to be in charge, Smith was promoted to brigadier general
on 2 February 1942. He assumed the new post a week later, with Dykes as his deputy. The two men worked in partnership to create and organize the secretariat, and to build the Combined Chiefs of Staff organization into one that could coordinate the war efforts of the two allies. Smith's duties involved participation in discussions at the highest level, and he often briefed President Roosevelt on strategic matters. However Smith became frustrated as he watched other officers receive the operational commands that he desired. He later remarked: "That year I spent working as secretary of the general staff for George Marshall was one of the most rewarding of my entire career and the unhappiest year of my life."
was appointed commander of the European Theater of Operations
in June 1942, he requested that Smith be sent from Washington as his chief of staff. Smith's record as a staff officer and his proven ability to work harmoniously with the British made him a natural choice for the post. Reluctantly, Marshall acceded to this request, and Smith took over as chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters
(AFHQ) on 15 September 1942. Reporting to him were two deputy chiefs of staff, Brigadier General Alfred Gruenther
and Brigadier John Whiteley, and the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO), Major General Humfrey Gale
. AFHQ was a balanced bi-national organization, in which the chief of each section was paired with a deputy of the other nationality. Its structure was generally American, but with some British aspects. For example, Gale as CAO controlled both personnel and supply functions, which under the American system would have reported directly to Smith. Initially AFHQ was located in London
, but it moved to Algiers
in November and December 1942, with Smith arriving on 11 December. Although AFHQ had an authorized strength of only 700, Smith aggressively expanded it. By January 1943 its American component alone was 1,406 and its strength eventually topped 4,000. As Chief of Staff, Smith zealously guarded access to Eisenhower. He acquired a reputation as a tough and brusque manager, and was often referred to as Eisenhower's "hatchet man
".
Pending the organization of the North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), Smith also acted as its chief of staff until 15 February, when Brigadier General Everett S. Hughes became Deputy Theater commander and commanding general of the Communications Zone
. The relationship between Smith and Hughes, an old friend of Eisenhower's, was tense, with Smith accusing Hughes of "empire building", and the two clashing over trivial issues. In Algiers Smith and Eisenhower seldom socialized together. Smith conducted formal dinners at his villa
, an estate surrounded by gardens and terraces, with two large drawing rooms decorated with mosaic
s, oriental rugs and art treasures. Like Eisenhower, Smith had a female companion, a nurse, Captain Ethel Westerman.
Following the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass
, Eisenhower sent Smith forward to report on the state of affairs at II Corps. Smith recommended the relief of its commander, Major General Lloyd Fredendall
, as did General Harold Alexander and Major Generals Omar Bradley
and Lucian Truscott
. On their advice, Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with Major General George S. Patton
. Eisenhower also relieved his Assistant Chief of Staff Intelligence (G-2), Brigadier Eric Mockler-Ferryman, pinpointing faulty intelligence at AFHQ as a contributing factor in the defeat at Kasserine. Mockler-Ferryman was replaced by Brigadier Kenneth Strong
.
Kasserine strained relations between the Allies, and another crisis developed when II Corps reported that enemy aviation was operating at will over its sector owing to an absence of Allied air cover. This elicited a scathing response from Air Marshal
Arthur Coningham
on the competence of American troops. Eisenhower drafted a letter to Marshall suggesting that Coningham should be relieved as he could not control the acrimony between senior Allied commanders, but Smith persuaded him not to send it. Instead, Air Chief Marshal
Arthur Tedder
, Major General Carl Spaatz
and Brigadier General Laurence S. Kuter
paid Patton a visit at his headquarters. Their meeting was interrupted by a German air raid which convinced the airmen that Patton had a point. Coningham withdrew his circular and apologized.
For the Allied invasion of Sicily
, the Combined Chiefs of Staff designated Eisenhower as overall commander but ordered the three component commanders, Alexander, Tedder and Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham
, to "cooperate". To Eisenhower, this command arrangement meant a reversion to the British "committee system". He drafted a cable to the Combined Chiefs demanding a unified command structure, but Smith persuaded him to tear it up. Disagreements arose between Allied commanders over the operational plan, which called for a series of dispersed landings, based on the air, naval, and logistical planners' desire for the early capture of ports and airfields. General Bernard Montgomery, the commander of the British Eighth Army
, objected to this aspect of the plan, as it exposed the Allied forces to destruction in detail
. Montgomery put forward an alternate plan that involved the American and British forces landing side by side. He convinced Smith that his alternate plan was sound, and the two men then persuaded the other Allied commanders. Montgomery's plan provided for the early seizure of airfields, which satisfied Tedder and Cunningham. The fears of logisticians like Major General Thomas B. Larkin
that supply would not be practical without a port were resolved by the use of DUKW
s.
In August 1943, Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon
via Gibraltar
in civilian clothes, where they met with Generale di Brigata
Giuseppe Castellano
at the British embassy. While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations
, Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces but was unable to negotiate political matters. On 3 September Smith and Castellano signed the agreed text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio
respectively in a simple ceremony beneath an olive tree at Cassibile, Sicily. In October Smith traveled to Washington for two weeks to represent Eisenhower in a series of meetings, including one with President Roosevelt at Hyde Park, New York
, on 10 October.
for Operation Overlord
, the invasion of Normandy
. Eisenhower wished to take Smith and other key members of his AFHQ staff with him to his new assignment, but Prime Minister
Winston Churchill
wanted to retain Smith at AFHQ as Deputy Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean. Churchill reluctantly gave way at Eisenhower's insistence. On New Year's Eve, Smith met with General
Sir Alan Brooke
to discuss the transfer of key British staff from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
(SHAEF). Brooke released Gale only after a strong appeal from Smith, and refused to transfer Strong. A heated exchange resulted, and Brooke later complained to Eisenhower about Smith's behavior. It was the only time that a senior British officer ever complained about Smith. Whiteley became Chief of Intelligence (G-2) at SHAEF instead of Strong, but Eisenhower and Smith eventually had their way and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944, with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy.
Smith was promoted to lieutenant general and made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1944. On 18 January he set out for London with two and a half tons of personal baggage loaded onto a pair of B-17s. The staff of the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC) was already active, and had been planning the Overlord operation for some time. It was absorbed into SHAEF, with COSSAC, Major General Frederick Morgan
, becoming Smith's Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF. Gale also held the title of Deputy Chief of Staff, as well as being Chief Administrative Officer, and there was also a Deputy Chief of Staff (Air), Air Vice Marshal James Robb
. The heads of the other staff divisions were Major General Ray W. Barker
(G-1), Major General Harold R. Bull
(G-3), Major General Robert W. Crawford (G-4) and Major General Sir Roger Lumley (G-5).
Morgan had located his COSSAC headquarters in Norfolk House
at 31 St. James's Square
, London, but Smith moved it to Bushy Park
on the outskirts of London in line with Eisenhower's express desire not to have his headquarters in a major city. A hutted camp was built with 130000 ft2 of floor space. By the time Overlord
began, accommodation had been provided for 750 officers and 6,000 enlisted
personnel. Eisenhower and Smith's offices were in a subterranean complex. Smith's office was spartan, dominated by a large portrait of Marshall. An advanced command post codenamed Sharpener was established near Portsmouth
, where Montgomery's 21st Army Group and Admiral
Sir Bertram Ramsay
's Allied Naval Expeditionary Force headquarters were located.
Ground operations were initially controlled by Montgomery, but SHAEF Forward headquarters moved to Jullouville
in August, and on 1 September Eisenhower assumed control of Bradley's 12th Army Group and Montgomery's 21st Army Group. Smith soon realized that he had made a mistake; the forward headquarters was remote and inaccessible, and lacked the necessary communications. On 6 September, Eisenhower ordered both SHAEF Forward and SHAEF Main to move to Versailles
as soon as possible. SHAEF Forward began its move on 15 September and opened at Versailles on 20 September. SHAEF Main followed, moving from Bushy Park by air. This move was completed by October, and SHAEF remained there until 17 February 1945, when SHAEF Forward moved to Reims
. By this time, SHAEF had grown in size to 16,000 personnel, of whom 10,000 were American and 6,000 British.
By November 1944, Strong was reporting that there was a possibility of a German counter offensive in the Ardennes
or the Vosges
. Smith sent Strong to personally warn Bradley, who was preparing an offensive of his own. The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock, and Smith had to defend Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm. He felt that Strong had given ample warning, which had been discounted or disregarded by himself and others. Once battle was joined, Eisenhower acted decisively, committing the two armored divisions in the 12th Army Group's reserve over Bradley's objection, along with his own meager reserves, two airborne divisions. Whiteley and Betts visited US First Army headquarters and were unimpressed with the way it was handling the situation. Strong, Whiteley and Betts recommended that command of the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery. Smith's immediate reaction was to dismiss the suggestion out of hand. He told Strong and Whiteley that they were fired and should pack their bags and return to the United Kingdom. The next morning, Smith apologized. He had had second thoughts and informed them that he would present their recommendation to Eisenhower as his own. He realized the military and political implications of this, and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer. On 20 December he recommended it to Eisenhower, who phoned Bradley and Montgomery and ordered it. This decision was greatly resented by many Americans, particularly at 12th Army Group, who felt that the action discredited the US Army's command.
Heavy casualties since the start of Overlord resulted in a critical shortage of infantry replacements even before the crisis situation created by the Ardennes Offensive. Steps were taken to divert men from Communications Zone units. The commander of the Communication Zone, Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee
, persuaded Eisenhower to allow soldiers to volunteer for service "without regard to color or race to the units where assistance is most needed, and give you the opportunity of fighting shoulder to shoulder to bring about victory". Smith immediately grasped the political implications of this. He put his position to Eisenhower in writing:
The policy was revised, with Negro soldiers serving in provisional platoon
s. In the 12th Army Group these were attached to regiments, while in the 6th Army Group the platoons were grouped into companies
attached to division. The former were generally better rated by the formations they were attached to, because the negro platoons had no company-level unit training.
On 15 April 1945, Nazi governor (Reichskommissar) of the Netherlands
, Arthur Seyss-Inquart
,
offered to open Amsterdam
to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population. Smith and Strong, representing SHAEF, along with Major General Ivan Susloparov
representing the USSR, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld
representing the Dutch government, and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand from 21st Army Group, met with Seyss-Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld
on 30 April. After threatening Seyss-Inquart with prosecution for war crimes, Smith successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country, and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in Holland that would follow on 5 May.
Smith had to conduct another set of surrender negotiations, that of the German armed forces, in May 1945. Smith met with the representatives of the German Armed Forces high command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
), Colonel General Alfred Jodl
and Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg
. Once again, Strong acted as translator. Smith took a hard line, threatening that unless terms were accepted, the Allies would seal the front, forcing the remaining Germans into Soviet hands, but made some concessions regarding a ceasefire before the surrender came into effect. On 7 May, Smith signed the surrender document, along with Susloparov and the French representative, Major General François Sevez
.
Smith briefly returned to the United States in June 1945. In August, Eisenhower nominated Smith as his successor as commander of "US Forces, European Theater", as ETOUSA was re-designated on July 1, 1945. Smith was passed over in favor of General Lucius D. Clay
. When Eisenhower took over as Chief of Staff of the United States Army
in November 1945, he summoned Smith to become his Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations and Planning. However, soon after his arrival back in Washington he was asked by President Harry S. Truman
and Secretary of State
James F. Byrnes
to become the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union. In putting Smith's nomination for the post before Congress
, Truman asked for and received special legislation permitting Smith to retain his permanent military rank of major general.
The ambassadorship was not a success. Although no fault of Smith's, during his tenure the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union rapidly deteriorated as the Cold War
set in. Smith's tenacity of purpose came across as a lack of flexibility and did nothing to allay Soviet fears about American intentions. He became thoroughly disillusioned and turned into a hardened cold warrior who saw the Soviet Union as a secretive, totalitarian and antagonistic state. In My Three Years in Moscow (1950), Smith's account of his time as ambassador, he wrote:
Smith returned to the United States in March 1949. Truman offered him the post of Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs
but Smith declined the appointment, preferring to return to military duty. He was appointed commander of First United States Army at Fort Jay
, Governors Island
, New York. The post, his first command since 1918, was an easy job for generous pay. Throughout the war, Smith had been troubled by a recurring stomach ulcer. Now it became acute; no longer able eat a normal diet, he was suffering from malnutrition
. Smith was admitted to Walter Reed Hospital, where the doctors decided to remove most of his stomach. This did cure his ulcer, but he remained undernourished and thin.
(DCI), the head of the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA). Since the post had been established in 1946, there had been three directors, none of whom had wanted the job. The 1949 Intelligence Survey Group had produced the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report
, which found that the CIA had failed in its responsibilities in both the coordination and production of intelligence. In response, the National Security Council
accepted the conclusions and recommendations of the report. It remained to implement them. In May 1950 President Truman decided that Smith was the man he needed for the CIA. Before Smith could assume the post on 7 October, there was a major intelligence failure. The North Korea
n invasion of South Korea
in June 1950, which started the Korean War
, took the administration entirely by surprise and raised fears of a third world war. Since Smith knew little about the Agency, he asked for a deputy who did. Sidney Souers
, the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council, recommended William Harding Jackson
, one of the authors of the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report, to Smith. Jackson accepted the post of Deputy Director on three conditions, one of which was "no bawlings out".
Smith and Jackson moved to reorganize the agency in line with the recommendations of the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report. They streamlined procedures for gathering and disseminating intelligence. On 10 October, Smith was asked to prepare estimates for the Wake Island Conference
between the President and General Douglas MacArthur
. Smith insisted that the estimates be simple, readable, conclusive and useful rather that mere background. They reflected the best information available, but unfortunately, one estimate concluded that the Chinese would not intervene in Korea, another major intelligence failure. Four months after the outbreak of war, the Agency had produced no coordinated estimate of the situation in Korea. Smith created a new Office of National Estimates (ONE) under the direction of William L. Langer
, the Harvard historian who had led the Research and Analysis branch of the wartime Office of Strategic Services
(OSS). Langer's staff created procedures that were followed for the next two decades. Smith stepped up efforts to obtain economic, psychological, and photo intelligence. By 1 December Smith had formed a Directorate for Administration. The Agency would ultimately be divided by function into three directorates: Administration, Plans, and Intelligence.
Smith is remembered in the CIA as its first successful DCI, and one of its most effective, who redefined its structure and mission. The CIA's expansive covert action program remained the responsibility of Frank Wisner
's quasi-independent Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), but Smith began to bring OPC under the DCI's control. In early January 1951 he made Allen Dulles the first Deputy Director for Plans (DDP), to supervise both OPC and the CIA's separate espionage organization, the Office of Special Operations (OSO). Not until January 1952 were all intelligence functions consolidated under a Deputy Director for Intelligence (DDI). Wisner succeeded Dulles as DDP in August 1951, and it took until August 1952 to merge OSO and OPC, each of which had its own culture, methods, and pay scales, into an effective, single directorate. By consolidating responsibility for covert operations, Smith made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for them. Smith wanted the CIA to become a career service. Before the war, the so-called "Manchu Law" limited the duration of an officer's temporary assignments, which effectively prevented anyone from making a career as a general staff officer. There were no schools for intelligence training, and staffs had little to do in peacetime. Career officers therefore tended to avoid such work unless they aspired to be military attaché
s. Smith consolidated training under a Director of Training and developed a career service program.
When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander Europe in 1951, he asked for Smith to serve as his chief of staff again. Truman turned down the request, stating that the DCI was a more important post. Eisenhower therefore took Lieutenant General Alfred Gruenther
with him as his chief of staff. When Eisenhower subsequently recommended Gruenther's elevation to four-star rank, Truman decided that Smith should be promoted also. However, Smith's name was omitted from the promotion list. Truman then announced that no one would be promoted until Smith was, which occurred on 1 August 1951. Smith retired from the Army upon leaving the CIA on 9 February 1953.
, announced that Smith would become Under Secretary of State
. Smith's appointment was confirmed by the United States Senate
on 6 February and he resigned as DCI three days later. In May 1954, Smith traveled to Europe in an attempt to convince the British to participate in an intervention to avert French defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu
. When this failed, he reached an agreement with the Soviet Foreign Minister, Vyacheslav Molotov
, to partition Vietnam
into two separate states. In 1953, the President of Guatemala
, Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán
, threatened to nationalize land belonging to the United Fruit Company
. Smith ordered the American ambassador in Guatemala to put a CIA plan for a Guatemalan coup into effect, which was accomplished by the following year. Smith left the State Department on 1 October 1954 and took up a position with the United Fruit Company. He also served as President and Chairman of the Board of the Associated Missile Products Company and AMF Atomics Incorporated, Vice Chairman of American Machine and Foundry (AMF) and a director of RCA
and Corning Incorporated.
After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954, Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts. He was a member of the National Security Training Commission from 1955 to 1957, the National War College
board of consultants from 1956 to 1959, the Office of Defense Mobilization
Special Stockpile Advisory Committee from 1957 to 1958, the President's Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program
from 1956 to 1957, and the President's Committee on Disarmament in 1958. Smith was a consultant at the Special Projects Office (Disarmament) in the Executive Office of the President from 1955 to 1956. He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Council of the President's Committee on Fund Raising, and as a member-at-large from 1958 to 1961. In recognition of his other former boss, he was a member of the George C. Marshall Foundation Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1961.
(1955), which was based on the autobiography of Audie Murphy
. He accepted, and had small parts in the movie, most notably in the beginning, where he was dressed in his old service uniform. He narrated several parts of the movie, referring constantly to "the foot soldier". Smith was portrayed on screen by Alexander Knox
in The Longest Day
(1962), Edward Binns in Patton
(1970) and Timothy Bottoms
in Ike: Countdown to D-Day
. On television he has been portrayed by John Guerrasio in Cambridge Spies
(2003), Charles Napier
in War and Remembrance
(1989), Don Fellows
in The Last Days of Patton
(1986) and J.D. Cannon in Ike: The War Years
(1979).
Smith suffered a heart attack
on 9 August 1961 at his home in Washington, DC, and died in the ambulance on the way to Walter Reed Army Hospital. Although entitled to a Special Full Honor Funeral, at the request of his widow Mary Eleanor Smith, a simple joint service funeral was held, patterned after the one given to Marshall in 1959. She selected a grave site for her husband in Section 7 of Arlington National Cemetery
close to Marshall's grave. She was buried next to him in 1963. His papers are in the Eisenhower Presidential Center
in Abilene, Kansas
.
|valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US military decorations
|-
|
|Army Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf cluster
s
|-
|
|Navy Distinguished Service Medal
|-
|
|Legion of Merit
|-
|
|Bronze Star Medal
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US Military Service Medals
|-
|
|World War I Victory Medal with three battle clasps
|-
|
|American Defense Service Medal
|-
|
|European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
with seven service star
s
|-
|
|World War II Victory Medal
|-
|
|Army of Occupation Medal
with "Germany" clasp
|-
|
|National Defense Service Medal
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US Civil Service Medals
|-
|
|National Security Medal
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |International and Foreign Awards
|-
|
|Grand Croix de 1'Ordre de la Couronne
with palm (Belgium
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre with palm (Belgium
)
|-
|
|Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil
)
|-
|
|Medal of Military Merit of the Army, First Class
, Grand Cross (Chile
)
|-
|
|Order of the White Lion
, Star II Class (Czechoslovakia
)
|-
|
|War Cross 1939–1945
(Czechoslovakia
)
|-
|
|Legion of Honor, Grand Officer (France
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre 1914–1918 with palm (France
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre 1939–1945
with palm (France
)
|-
|
|Order of the Bath
, Knight Commander (United Kingdom
)
|-
|
|Order of the British Empire
, Knight Commander (United Kingdom
)
|-
|
|Order of the Oak Crown
, Grand Cross (Luxembourg
)
|-
|
|Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross (Morocco
)
|-
|
|Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands
)
|-
|
|Order of Polonia Restituta, II Class (Poland
)
|-
|
|Order of Virtuti Militari, Silver Cross (Poland
)
|-
|
|Cross of Grunwald
, Second Class (Poland
)
|-
|
|Order of Nichan Iftikhar
(Tunisia
)
|-
|
|Order of Kutuzov
, First Class (USSR)
|-
|}
Source:
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
general
General (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an...
who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
's chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Force Headquarters was the headquarters that controlled all Allied operational forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II from late 1942 to the end of the war....
during the Tunisia Campaign
Tunisia Campaign
The Tunisia Campaign was a series of battles that took place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign of the Second World War, between Axis and Allied forces. The Allies consisted of British Imperial Forces, including Polish and Greek contingents, with American and French corps...
and the Allied invasion of Italy
Allied invasion of Italy
The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on September 3, 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group during the Second World War. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign...
. Later he was Eisenhower's chief of staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in north west Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was in command of SHAEF throughout its existence...
(SHAEF) from 1944 to 1945.
Smith enlisted as a private
Private (rank)
A Private is a soldier of the lowest military rank .In modern military parlance, 'Private' is shortened to 'Pte' in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries and to 'Pvt.' in the United States.Notably both Sir Fitzroy MacLean and Enoch Powell are examples of, rare, rapid career...
in the Indiana National Guard
Indiana National Guard
The Indiana National Guard is the armed force of the state of Indiana. It consists of the Indiana Army National Guard and the Indiana Air National Guard, and is part of the larger Army National Guard and the Air National Guard...
in 1911. During World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
he was commissioned as an officer in 1917 and wounded in the Aisne-Marne Offensive in 1918. After the war he was a staff officer and an instructor at the United States Army Infantry School
United States Army Infantry School
The United States Army Infantry School is located in Fort Benning, Georgia. It is made up of the following components:*192d Infantry Brigade...
. In 1941 he became Secretary of the General Staff. The next year he became Secretary to the Combined Chiefs of Staff
Combined Chiefs of Staff
The Combined Chiefs of Staff was the supreme military command for the western Allies during World War II. It was a body constituted from the British Chiefs of Staff Committee and the American Joint Chiefs of Staff....
. His duties involved participation in discussions at the highest level, and Smith often briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt , also known by his initials, FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
on strategic matters.
Smith became chief of staff to Eisenhower at Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Force Headquarters was the headquarters that controlled all Allied operational forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II from late 1942 to the end of the war....
(AFHQ) in September 1942. He acquired a reputation as Eisenhower's "hatchet man
Hatchet man
A hatchet man was originally a pioneer or axeman serving in a US military unit. Towards the end of the 19th century, the phrase was used to describe a Chinese assassin who carried a handleless hatchet, which originated from New York's Doyers Street....
" for his brusque and demanding manner. However, he was also capable of representing Eisenhower on sensitive missions requiring diplomatic skill. Smith was involved in negotiating the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces, which he signed on behalf of Eisenhower. In 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in north west Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was in command of SHAEF throughout its existence...
(SHAEF), again under Eisenhower. He successfully negotiated food aid for the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country, and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in Holland. In May 1945 he met with the representatives of the German High Command to negotiate the surrender of the German Armed Forces.
After the war he served as Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948. He became Director of Central Intelligence
Director of Central Intelligence
The Office of United States Director of Central Intelligence was the head of the United States Central Intelligence Agency, the principal intelligence advisor to the President and the National Security Council, and the coordinator of intelligence activities among and between the various United...
, the head of the Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
The Central Intelligence Agency is a civilian intelligence agency of the United States government. It is an executive agency and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers...
, in 1950. Smith reorganized the agency, redefined its structure and mission, and gave it a new sense of purpose. He made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for covert operations. He left the CIA in 1953 to become Under Secretary of State
Under Secretary of State
The Under Secretary of State, from 1919 to 1972, was the second-ranking official at the United States Department of State , serving as the Secretary's principal deputy, chief assistant, and Acting Secretary in the event of the Secretary's absence...
. After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954, Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts.
Early life
Walter Bedell Smith was born in Indianapolis, IndianaIndianapolis, Indiana
Indianapolis is the capital of the U.S. state of Indiana, and the county seat of Marion County, Indiana. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population is 839,489. It is by far Indiana's largest city and, as of the 2010 U.S...
, on 5 October 1895, the eldest of two sons of William Long Smith, a silk buyer for the Pettis Dry Goods Company, and his wife Ida Francis née Bedell, who worked for the same company. Smith was known as Bedell from childhood. From an early age he was nicknamed "Beetle", or occasionally "Beedle" or "Boodle". He was educated at St. Peter and Paul School, public schools #10 and #29, Oliver Perry Morton School, and Emmerich Manual High School
Emmerich Manual High School
Emmerich Manual High School is a public high school in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA. It is one of five traditional high schools in the Indianapolis Public Schools district.-Establishment and History:...
, where he trained as a machinist. While still there, he took a job at the National Motor Vehicle Company, and eventually left high school without graduating. Smith enrolled at Butler University
Butler University
Butler University is a private university located in Indianapolis, Indiana. Founded in 1855 and named after founder Ovid Butler, the university offers 60 degree programs to 4,400 students through six colleges: business, communication, education, liberal Arts and sciences, pharmacy and health...
but his father developed serious health problems, and Smith left university to return to his job and support his family.
In 1911, at the age of 16, Smith enlisted as a private
Private (rank)
A Private is a soldier of the lowest military rank .In modern military parlance, 'Private' is shortened to 'Pte' in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries and to 'Pvt.' in the United States.Notably both Sir Fitzroy MacLean and Enoch Powell are examples of, rare, rapid career...
in Company D of the 2nd Indiana Infantry of the Indiana National Guard
Indiana National Guard
The Indiana National Guard is the armed force of the state of Indiana. It consists of the Indiana Army National Guard and the Indiana Air National Guard, and is part of the larger Army National Guard and the Air National Guard...
. The Indiana National Guard was called out twice in 1913, for the 1913 Ohio flood and a streetcar strike. Smith was promoted to corporal
Corporal
Corporal is a rank in use in some form by most militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. It is usually equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-4....
and then sergeant
Sergeant
Sergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries, police forces, and other uniformed organizations around the world. Its origins are the Latin serviens, "one who serves", through the French term Sergent....
. During the Pancho Villa Expedition
Pancho Villa Expedition
The Pancho Villa Expedition—officially known in the United States as the Mexican Expedition and sometimes colloquially referred to as the Punitive Expedition—was a military operation conducted by the United States Army against the paramilitary forces of Mexican insurgent Francisco "Pancho" Villa...
he served on the staff of the Indiana National Guard. In 1913 he met Mary Eleanor (Nory) Cline, and they were married in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding ceremony on 1 July 1917. Their marriage was of long duration but produced no children.
World War I
Smith's work during the 1913 flood led to his nomination for officer training in 1917 and he was sent to the Officer Candidate Training Camp at Fort Benjamin HarrisonFort Benjamin Harrison
Fort Benjamin Harrison was a U.S. Army post located in suburban Lawrence, Indiana, northeast of Indianapolis. It is named for the 23rd United States President, Benjamin Harrison. Land was purchased in 1903, with the post being officially named for President Harrison in honor of Indianapolis being...
. Upon graduation on 27 November 1917, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces.- United Kingdom and Commonwealth :The rank second lieutenant was introduced throughout the British Army in 1871 to replace the rank of ensign , although it had long been used in the Royal Artillery, Royal...
. He was then posted to the newly formed Company A, 1st Battalion, 39th Infantry, part of the 4th Division at Camp Greene
Camp Greene
Camp Greene was a United States Army facility in North Carolina, United States during the early 20th Century. In 1917, both the 3rd Infantry Division and the 4th Infantry Divisions were first organized and assembled at this camp.-History:...
, North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
. The 4th Division embarked for Europe, then embroiled in World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, from Hoboken, New Jersey
Hoboken, New Jersey
Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 50,005. The city is part of the New York metropolitan area and contains Hoboken Terminal, a major transportation hub for the region...
, on 9 May 1918, reaching Brest, France
Brest, France
Brest is a city in the Finistère department in Brittany in northwestern France. Located in a sheltered position not far from the western tip of the Breton peninsula, and the western extremity of metropolitan France, Brest is an important harbour and the second French military port after Toulon...
, on 23 May. After training with the British and French Armies, the 4th Division entered the line
Front line
A front line is the farthest-most forward position of an armed force's personnel and equipment - generally in respect of maritime or land forces. Forward Line of Own Troops , or Forward Edge of Battle Area are technical terms used by all branches of the armed services...
in June 1918, joining the Aisne-Marne Offensive on 18 July 1918. Smith was wounded by shell fragments in an attack two days later.
Smith was returned to the United States for service with the War Department
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
General Staff and was assigned to the Military Intelligence Division. In September 1918, he was commissioned as a first lieutenant
First Lieutenant
First lieutenant is a military rank and, in some forces, an appointment.The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
in the Regular Army. He was then sent to the newly formed 379th Infantry as its intelligence officer. This regiment was part of the 95th Division, based at Camp Sherman, Ohio
Camp Sherman, Ohio
Camp Sherman is an Ohio Army National Guard training site near Chillicothe, Ohio. It was established in 1917 after the U.S. entered World War I and today serves as a training site for National Guard soldiers. In 2009 the remaining National Guard facility was renamed Camp Sherman Joint Training...
. The 95th Division was disbanded following the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, and in February 1919 Smith was posted to Camp Dodge
Camp Dodge
Camp Dodge is a military installation in the city of Johnston, Iowa. Centrally located near the capitol of Iowa, it currently serves as the headquarters of the Iowa National Guard. Original construction of the post began in 1907, to provide a place for the National Guard units to train...
, Iowa
Iowa
Iowa is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland". It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New...
, where he was involved with the disposal of surplus equipment and supplies. In March 1919 he was transferred to the 2nd Infantry
2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)
The 2nd Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment in the United States Army. It has served the United States for more than two hundred years. It is the third oldest regiment in the US Army with a Lineage date of 1808 and a history extending back to 1791...
, a regular unit based at Camp Dodge, remaining there until November 1919, when it moved to Camp Sherman.
Between the wars
The staff of the 2nd Infantry moved to Fort Sheridan, IllinoisFort Sheridan, Illinois
Fort Sheridan is a residential neighborhood spread among Lake Forest, Highwood, and Highland Park in Lake County, Illinois, United States. It was originally established as a United States Army Post named after Civil War Cavalry General Philip Sheridan, to honor his services to Chicago...
, in 1921. In 1922, Smith became aide de camp to Brigadier General
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
George Van Horn Moseley
George Van Horn Moseley
George Van Horn Moseley was a United States Army general. Following his retirement in 1938, he became controversial for his anti-immigrant and anti-Semitic views.-Biography:...
, the commander of the 12th Infantry Brigade at Fort Sheridan. From 1925 to 1929 Smith worked as an assistant in the Bureau of the Budget. He then served a two-year tour of duty overseas on the staff of the 45th Infantry
45th Infantry Regiment (United States)
The 45th Infantry Regiment was a unit of the Philippine Scouts in the Philippine Division.-History:The 45th along with the 57th Infantry Regiment were the first two infantry regiments of the Philippine Scouts which were formed after World War I...
at Fort William McKinley
Fort William McKinley
Fort William McKinley, was established in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War in 1901 when the whole land south of Pasig River down to Alabang was declared a U.S. Military Reservation. During the World War II era, it was where USAFFE had its headquarters for the Philippine Department...
in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
. After nine years as a first lieutenant, he was promoted to captain in September 1929.
Returning to the United States, Smith reported to the United States Army Infantry School
United States Army Infantry School
The United States Army Infantry School is located in Fort Benning, Georgia. It is made up of the following components:*192d Infantry Brigade...
at Fort Benning, Georgia, in March 1931. Upon graduation in June 1932, he stayed on as an instructor in the Weapons Section, where he was responsible for demonstrating weapons like the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. In 1933 he was sent to the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth is a United States Army facility located in Leavenworth County, Kansas, immediately north of the city of Leavenworth in the upper northeast portion of the state. It is the oldest active United States Army post west of Washington, D.C. and has been in operation for over 180 years...
, Kansas
Kansas
Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south...
. Afterward, he returned to the Infantry School but was detached again to attend the Army War College, from which he graduated in 1937. He returned to the Infantry School once more, where he was promoted to major
Major (United States)
In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, major is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel...
on 1 January 1939 after nine years as a captain. Such slow promotion was common in the Army in the 1920s and 1930s. Officers like Smith who were commissioned between November 1916 and November 1918 made up 55.6 percent of the Army's officers in 1926. Promotions were usually based on seniority, and the modest objective of promoting officers to major after seventeen years of service could not be met owing to a shortage of posts for them to fill.
Washington
When General George C. Marshall became the Army's Chief of StaffChief of Staff of the United States Army
The Chief of Staff of the Army is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Army, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Army, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the Army; and is in...
in September 1939, he brought Smith to Washington, DC, to be the Assistant to the Secretary of the General Staff. The Secretary of the General Staff was primarily concerned with records, paperwork and the collection of statistics, but also performed a great deal of analysis, liaison and administration. One of Smith's duties was liaison with Major General
Major general (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
Edwin "Pa" Watson, the Senior Military Aide to President Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt , also known by his initials, FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
. Smith was promoted to lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant Colonel (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the naval rank of commander in the other uniformed services.The pay...
on 4 May 1941 and then colonel
Colonel (United States)
In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, colonel is a senior field grade military officer rank just above the rank of lieutenant colonel and just below the rank of brigadier general...
on 30 August 1941. On 1 September, the Secretary of the General Staff, Colonel Orlando Ward
Orlando Ward
Orlando Ward was a career United States Army Officer. During World War II, as a Major General, he commanded the U.S. 1st Armored Division during Operation Torch...
, was given command of the 1st Armored Division
1st Armored Division (United States)
The 1st Armored Division—nicknamed "Old Ironsides"—is a standing armored division of the United States Army with base of operations in Fort Bliss, Texas. It was the first armored division of the U.S...
and Smith became Secretary of the General Staff.
The Arcadia Conference
Arcadia Conference
The First Washington Conference, also known as the Arcadia Conference , was held in Washington, D.C. from December 22, 1941 to January 14, 1942. It was the first meeting on military strategy between the heads of government of the United Kingdom and the United States following the United States'...
, which was held in Washington, DC, December 1941 and January 1942, mandated the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President on military matters...
as a counterpart to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee
Chiefs of Staff Committee
The Chiefs of Staff Committee is composed of the most senior military personnel in the British Armed Forces.-History:The Chiefs of Staff Committee was initially established as a sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence in 1923. It remained as such until the abolition of the CID upon the...
, and Smith was named its secretary on 23 January 1942. The same conference also saw the creation of the Combined Chiefs of Staff
Combined Chiefs of Staff
The Combined Chiefs of Staff was the supreme military command for the western Allies during World War II. It was a body constituted from the British Chiefs of Staff Committee and the American Joint Chiefs of Staff....
, which consisted of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Chiefs of Staff Committee meeting as a single body. Brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
Vivian Dykes
Vivian Dykes
Brigadier Vivian Dykes , was the Director of Plans, War Office between 1939 and 1941 and became the first Chief Combined Secretary British Joint Staff Mission Washington in 1942. He was described as being 'at the heart of allied military policy making'...
of the British Joint Staff Mission initially provided the secretarial arrangements for the new organization but Marshall felt that an American secretariat was required, and appointed Smith as secretary of the Combined Chiefs as well as of the Joint Chiefs. Since Dykes was senior to Smith, and Marshall wanted Smith to be in charge, Smith was promoted to brigadier general
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
on 2 February 1942. He assumed the new post a week later, with Dykes as his deputy. The two men worked in partnership to create and organize the secretariat, and to build the Combined Chiefs of Staff organization into one that could coordinate the war efforts of the two allies. Smith's duties involved participation in discussions at the highest level, and he often briefed President Roosevelt on strategic matters. However Smith became frustrated as he watched other officers receive the operational commands that he desired. He later remarked: "That year I spent working as secretary of the general staff for George Marshall was one of the most rewarding of my entire career and the unhappiest year of my life."
North African Theater
When Major General Dwight D. EisenhowerDwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
was appointed commander of the European Theater of Operations
European Theater of Operations
The European Theater of Operations, United States Army was a United States Army formation which directed U.S. Army operations in parts of Europe from 1942 to 1945. It referred to Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and the...
in June 1942, he requested that Smith be sent from Washington as his chief of staff. Smith's record as a staff officer and his proven ability to work harmoniously with the British made him a natural choice for the post. Reluctantly, Marshall acceded to this request, and Smith took over as chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Force Headquarters was the headquarters that controlled all Allied operational forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II from late 1942 to the end of the war....
(AFHQ) on 15 September 1942. Reporting to him were two deputy chiefs of staff, Brigadier General Alfred Gruenther
Alfred Gruenther
Alfred Maximilian Gruenther was the youngest World War II Major General and after the war, as a four-star General, served as the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe from 1953 to 1956.-Biography:...
and Brigadier John Whiteley, and the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO), Major General Humfrey Gale
Humfrey Gale
Lieutenant General Sir Humfrey Myddelton Gale KBE, CB, CVO, MC was an officer in the British Army who served in the First World War and Second World War, during which he was Chief Administrative Officer at Allied Forces Headquarters and later SHAEF under General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower...
. AFHQ was a balanced bi-national organization, in which the chief of each section was paired with a deputy of the other nationality. Its structure was generally American, but with some British aspects. For example, Gale as CAO controlled both personnel and supply functions, which under the American system would have reported directly to Smith. Initially AFHQ was located in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
, but it moved to Algiers
Algiers
' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000...
in November and December 1942, with Smith arriving on 11 December. Although AFHQ had an authorized strength of only 700, Smith aggressively expanded it. By January 1943 its American component alone was 1,406 and its strength eventually topped 4,000. As Chief of Staff, Smith zealously guarded access to Eisenhower. He acquired a reputation as a tough and brusque manager, and was often referred to as Eisenhower's "hatchet man
Hatchet man
A hatchet man was originally a pioneer or axeman serving in a US military unit. Towards the end of the 19th century, the phrase was used to describe a Chinese assassin who carried a handleless hatchet, which originated from New York's Doyers Street....
".
Pending the organization of the North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), Smith also acted as its chief of staff until 15 February, when Brigadier General Everett S. Hughes became Deputy Theater commander and commanding general of the Communications Zone
Communications Zone
Communications Zone is a US Army and NATO term which describes a part of the theater of war operations.The Communications Zone is the rear part of theater of operations which contains the lines of communications, establishments for supply and evacuation, and other agencies required for the...
. The relationship between Smith and Hughes, an old friend of Eisenhower's, was tense, with Smith accusing Hughes of "empire building", and the two clashing over trivial issues. In Algiers Smith and Eisenhower seldom socialized together. Smith conducted formal dinners at his villa
Villa
A villa was originally an ancient Roman upper-class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became small farming compounds, which were increasingly fortified in Late Antiquity,...
, an estate surrounded by gardens and terraces, with two large drawing rooms decorated with mosaic
Mosaic
Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It may be a technique of decorative art, an aspect of interior decoration, or of cultural and spiritual significance as in a cathedral...
s, oriental rugs and art treasures. Like Eisenhower, Smith had a female companion, a nurse, Captain Ethel Westerman.
Following the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass
Battle of the Kasserine Pass
The Battle of the Kasserine Pass was a battle that took place during the Tunisia Campaign of World War II in February 1943. It was a series of battles fought around Kasserine Pass, a wide gap in the Grand Dorsal chain of the Atlas Mountains in west central Tunisia...
, Eisenhower sent Smith forward to report on the state of affairs at II Corps. Smith recommended the relief of its commander, Major General Lloyd Fredendall
Lloyd Fredendall
Lloyd Fredendall was an American General during World War II. Major General Fredendall is best known for his command of the Central Task Force landings during Operation Torch, and his command of the US II Corps during the early stages of the Tunisia Campaign...
, as did General Harold Alexander and Major Generals Omar Bradley
Omar Bradley
Omar Nelson Bradley was a senior U.S. Army field commander in North Africa and Europe during World War II, and a General of the Army in the United States Army...
and Lucian Truscott
Lucian Truscott
Lucian King Truscott, Jr. was a U.S. Army General, who successively commanded the 3rd Infantry Division, VI Corps, U.S. Fifteenth Army and U.S. Fifth Army during World War II.-Early life:...
. On their advice, Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with Major General George S. Patton
George S. Patton
George Smith Patton, Jr. was a United States Army officer best known for his leadership while commanding corps and armies as a general during World War II. He was also well known for his eccentricity and controversial outspokenness.Patton was commissioned in the U.S. Army after his graduation from...
. Eisenhower also relieved his Assistant Chief of Staff Intelligence (G-2), Brigadier Eric Mockler-Ferryman, pinpointing faulty intelligence at AFHQ as a contributing factor in the defeat at Kasserine. Mockler-Ferryman was replaced by Brigadier Kenneth Strong
Kenneth Strong
Major General Sir Kenneth William Dobson Strong KBE, CB was a British Army officer who served in the Second World War, rising to become Director General of Intelligence. A graduate of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Strong was commissioned into the 1st Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1920...
.
Kasserine strained relations between the Allies, and another crisis developed when II Corps reported that enemy aviation was operating at will over its sector owing to an absence of Allied air cover. This elicited a scathing response from Air Marshal
Air Marshal
Air marshal is a three-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
Arthur Coningham
Arthur Coningham (RAF officer)
Air Marshal Sir Arthur "Mary" Coningham KCB, KBE, DSO, MC, DFC, AFC, RAF was a senior officer in the Royal Air Force. During the First World War, he was at Gallipoli with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, transferred to the Royal Flying Corps, where he became a flying ace...
on the competence of American troops. Eisenhower drafted a letter to Marshall suggesting that Coningham should be relieved as he could not control the acrimony between senior Allied commanders, but Smith persuaded him not to send it. Instead, Air Chief Marshal
Air Chief Marshal
Air chief marshal is a senior 4-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
Arthur Tedder
Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Arthur William Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder, GCB was a senior British air force commander. During the First World War, he was a pilot and squadron commander in the Royal Flying Corps and he went on to serve as a senior officer in the Royal Air Force during the inter-war...
, Major General Carl Spaatz
Carl Spaatz
Carl Andrew "Tooey" Spaatz GBE was an American World War II general and the first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. He was of German descent.-Early life:...
and Brigadier General Laurence S. Kuter
Laurence S. Kuter
General Laurence Sherman Kuter was a Cold War-era U.S. Air Force general and former commander of NORAD...
paid Patton a visit at his headquarters. Their meeting was interrupted by a German air raid which convinced the airmen that Patton had a point. Coningham withdrew his circular and apologized.
For the Allied invasion of Sicily
Allied invasion of Sicily
The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major World War II campaign, in which the Allies took Sicily from the Axis . It was a large scale amphibious and airborne operation, followed by six weeks of land combat. It launched the Italian Campaign.Husky began on the night of...
, the Combined Chiefs of Staff designated Eisenhower as overall commander but ordered the three component commanders, Alexander, Tedder and Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham
Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope
Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope KT, GCB, OM, DSO and two Bars , was a British admiral of the Second World War. Cunningham was widely known by his nickname, "ABC"....
, to "cooperate". To Eisenhower, this command arrangement meant a reversion to the British "committee system". He drafted a cable to the Combined Chiefs demanding a unified command structure, but Smith persuaded him to tear it up. Disagreements arose between Allied commanders over the operational plan, which called for a series of dispersed landings, based on the air, naval, and logistical planners' desire for the early capture of ports and airfields. General Bernard Montgomery, the commander of the British Eighth Army
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
The Eighth Army was one of the best-known formations of the British Army during World War II, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns....
, objected to this aspect of the plan, as it exposed the Allied forces to destruction in detail
Defeat in detail
Defeat in detail is a military phrase referring to the tactic of bringing a large portion of one's own force to bear on small enemy units in sequence, rather than engaging the bulk of the enemy force all at once...
. Montgomery put forward an alternate plan that involved the American and British forces landing side by side. He convinced Smith that his alternate plan was sound, and the two men then persuaded the other Allied commanders. Montgomery's plan provided for the early seizure of airfields, which satisfied Tedder and Cunningham. The fears of logisticians like Major General Thomas B. Larkin
Thomas B. Larkin
Lieutenant General Thomas Bernard Larkin was a military officer who served as the 32nd Quartermaster General of the United States Army.-Early life:...
that supply would not be practical without a port were resolved by the use of DUKW
DUKW
The DUKW is a six-wheel-drive amphibious truck that was designed by a partnership under military auspices of Sparkman & Stephens and General Motors Corporation during World War II for transporting goods and troops over land and water and for use approaching and crossing beaches in amphibious...
s.
In August 1943, Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
via Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
in civilian clothes, where they met with Generale di Brigata
Brigadier General
Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000...
Giuseppe Castellano
Giuseppe Castellano
Giuseppe Castellano was an Italian general who negotiated the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces on September 8, 1943.-Military career:...
at the British embassy. While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces but was unable to negotiate political matters. On 3 September Smith and Castellano signed the agreed text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio
Pietro Badoglio
Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba, 1st Marquess of Sabotino was an Italian soldier and politician...
respectively in a simple ceremony beneath an olive tree at Cassibile, Sicily. In October Smith traveled to Washington for two weeks to represent Eisenhower in a series of meetings, including one with President Roosevelt at Hyde Park, New York
Hyde Park, New York
Hyde Park is a town located in the northwest part of Dutchess County, New York, United States, just north of the city of Poughkeepsie. The town is most famous for being the hometown of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt....
, on 10 October.
European Theater
In December 1943, Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied CommanderSupreme Allied Commander
Supreme Allied Commander is the title held by the most senior commander within certain multinational military alliances. It originated as a term used by the Western Allies during World War II, and is currently used only within NATO. Dwight Eisenhower served as Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary...
for Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings...
, the invasion of Normandy
Normandy
Normandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is in France.The continental territory covers 30,627 km² and forms the preponderant part of Normandy and roughly 5% of the territory of France. It is divided for administrative purposes into two régions:...
. Eisenhower wished to take Smith and other key members of his AFHQ staff with him to his new assignment, but Prime Minister
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign, to Parliament, to their political party and...
Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
wanted to retain Smith at AFHQ as Deputy Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean. Churchill reluctantly gave way at Eisenhower's insistence. On New Year's Eve, Smith met with General
General (United Kingdom)
General is currently the highest peace-time rank in the British Army and Royal Marines. It is subordinate to the Army rank of Field Marshal, has a NATO-code of OF-9, and is a four-star rank....
Sir Alan Brooke
Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke
Field Marshal The Rt. Hon. Alan Francis Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, KG, GCB, OM, GCVO, DSO & Bar , was a senior commander in the British Army. He was the Chief of the Imperial General Staff during the Second World War, and was promoted to Field Marshal in 1944...
to discuss the transfer of key British staff from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in north west Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was in command of SHAEF throughout its existence...
(SHAEF). Brooke released Gale only after a strong appeal from Smith, and refused to transfer Strong. A heated exchange resulted, and Brooke later complained to Eisenhower about Smith's behavior. It was the only time that a senior British officer ever complained about Smith. Whiteley became Chief of Intelligence (G-2) at SHAEF instead of Strong, but Eisenhower and Smith eventually had their way and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944, with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy.
Smith was promoted to lieutenant general and made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1944. On 18 January he set out for London with two and a half tons of personal baggage loaded onto a pair of B-17s. The staff of the Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC) was already active, and had been planning the Overlord operation for some time. It was absorbed into SHAEF, with COSSAC, Major General Frederick Morgan
Frederick E. Morgan
Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Edgeworth Morgan KCB was a British Army officer who fought in the First World War and the Second World War...
, becoming Smith's Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF. Gale also held the title of Deputy Chief of Staff, as well as being Chief Administrative Officer, and there was also a Deputy Chief of Staff (Air), Air Vice Marshal James Robb
James Robb (RAF officer)
Air Chief Marshal Sir James Milne Robb GCB, KBE, DSO, DFC, AFC, RAF, was a senior Royal Air Force commander. After early service in the First World War with the Northumberland Fusiliers, Robb joined the Royal Flying Corps and became a flying ace credited with seven aerial victories...
. The heads of the other staff divisions were Major General Ray W. Barker
Ray Barker
Ray Wehnes Barker was a Major General of the Allied Forces, and served in the European Theater of Operations During World War II. General Barker was a key member of the combined United States-British group, which became known as COSSAC...
(G-1), Major General Harold R. Bull
Harold R. Bull
Harold R. Bull was born in Springfield, Massachusetts and graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1914. He served as Assistant Chief of Staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force under Dwight D. Eisenhower from October 1943 until SHAEF was...
(G-3), Major General Robert W. Crawford (G-4) and Major General Sir Roger Lumley (G-5).
Morgan had located his COSSAC headquarters in Norfolk House
Norfolk House
Norfolk House, at 31 St James's Square, London, was built in 1722 for the Duke of Norfolk. It was a royal residence for a short time only, when Frederick, Prince of Wales, father of King George III, lived there 1737-1741, after his marriage in 1736 to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, daughter of...
at 31 St. James's Square
St. James's Square
St. James's Square is the only square in the exclusive St James's district of the City of Westminster. It has predominantly Georgian and neo-Georgian architecture and a private garden in the centre...
, London, but Smith moved it to Bushy Park
Bushy Park
- External links :***...
on the outskirts of London in line with Eisenhower's express desire not to have his headquarters in a major city. A hutted camp was built with 130000 ft2 of floor space. By the time Overlord
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings...
began, accommodation had been provided for 750 officers and 6,000 enlisted
Enlisted rank
An enlisted rank is, in most Militaries, any rank below a commissioned officer or warrant officer. The term can also be inclusive of non-commissioned officers...
personnel. Eisenhower and Smith's offices were in a subterranean complex. Smith's office was spartan, dominated by a large portrait of Marshall. An advanced command post codenamed Sharpener was established near Portsmouth
Portsmouth
Portsmouth is the second largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire on the south coast of England. Portsmouth is notable for being the United Kingdom's only island city; it is located mainly on Portsea Island...
, where Montgomery's 21st Army Group and Admiral
Admiral (United Kingdom)
Admiral is a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, which equates to the NATO rank code OF-9, outranked only by the rank Admiral of the Fleet...
Sir Bertram Ramsay
Bertram Ramsay
Admiral Sir Bertram Home Ramsay KCB, KBE, MVO was a British admiral during World War II. He was an important contributor in the field of amphibious warfare.-Early life:...
's Allied Naval Expeditionary Force headquarters were located.
Ground operations were initially controlled by Montgomery, but SHAEF Forward headquarters moved to Jullouville
Jullouville
Jullouville is a commune in the Manche department in north-western France.-Heraldry:-See also:*Communes of the Manche department...
in August, and on 1 September Eisenhower assumed control of Bradley's 12th Army Group and Montgomery's 21st Army Group. Smith soon realized that he had made a mistake; the forward headquarters was remote and inaccessible, and lacked the necessary communications. On 6 September, Eisenhower ordered both SHAEF Forward and SHAEF Main to move to Versailles
Versailles
Versailles , a city renowned for its château, the Palace of Versailles, was the de facto capital of the kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789. It is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and remains an important administrative and judicial centre...
as soon as possible. SHAEF Forward began its move on 15 September and opened at Versailles on 20 September. SHAEF Main followed, moving from Bushy Park by air. This move was completed by October, and SHAEF remained there until 17 February 1945, when SHAEF Forward moved to Reims
Reims
Reims , a city in the Champagne-Ardenne region of France, lies east-northeast of Paris. Founded by the Gauls, it became a major city during the period of the Roman Empire....
. By this time, SHAEF had grown in size to 16,000 personnel, of whom 10,000 were American and 6,000 British.
By November 1944, Strong was reporting that there was a possibility of a German counter offensive in the Ardennes
Ardennes
The Ardennes is a region of extensive forests, rolling hills and ridges formed within the Givetian Ardennes mountain range, primarily in Belgium and Luxembourg, but stretching into France , and geologically into the Eifel...
or the Vosges
Vosges
Vosges is a French department, named after the local mountain range. It contains the hometown of Joan of Arc, Domrémy.-History:The Vosges department is one of the original 83 departments of France, created on February 9, 1790 during the French Revolution. It was made of territories that had been...
. Smith sent Strong to personally warn Bradley, who was preparing an offensive of his own. The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock, and Smith had to defend Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm. He felt that Strong had given ample warning, which had been discounted or disregarded by himself and others. Once battle was joined, Eisenhower acted decisively, committing the two armored divisions in the 12th Army Group's reserve over Bradley's objection, along with his own meager reserves, two airborne divisions. Whiteley and Betts visited US First Army headquarters and were unimpressed with the way it was handling the situation. Strong, Whiteley and Betts recommended that command of the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery. Smith's immediate reaction was to dismiss the suggestion out of hand. He told Strong and Whiteley that they were fired and should pack their bags and return to the United Kingdom. The next morning, Smith apologized. He had had second thoughts and informed them that he would present their recommendation to Eisenhower as his own. He realized the military and political implications of this, and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer. On 20 December he recommended it to Eisenhower, who phoned Bradley and Montgomery and ordered it. This decision was greatly resented by many Americans, particularly at 12th Army Group, who felt that the action discredited the US Army's command.
Heavy casualties since the start of Overlord resulted in a critical shortage of infantry replacements even before the crisis situation created by the Ardennes Offensive. Steps were taken to divert men from Communications Zone units. The commander of the Communication Zone, Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee
John C. H. Lee
John Clifford Hodges Lee was a US Army General. He graduated 12th out of 103 graduates from the United States Military Academy in 1909.He served in World War I, World War II and rose to the rank of Lieutenant General....
, persuaded Eisenhower to allow soldiers to volunteer for service "without regard to color or race to the units where assistance is most needed, and give you the opportunity of fighting shoulder to shoulder to bring about victory". Smith immediately grasped the political implications of this. He put his position to Eisenhower in writing:
The policy was revised, with Negro soldiers serving in provisional platoon
Platoon
A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or squads and containing 16 to 50 soldiers. Platoons are organized into a company, which typically consists of three, four or five platoons. A platoon is typically the smallest military unit led by a commissioned officer—the...
s. In the 12th Army Group these were attached to regiments, while in the 6th Army Group the platoons were grouped into companies
Company (military unit)
A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–225 soldiers and usually commanded by a Captain, Major or Commandant. Most companies are formed of three to five platoons although the exact number may vary by country, unit type, and structure...
attached to division. The former were generally better rated by the formations they were attached to, because the negro platoons had no company-level unit training.
On 15 April 1945, Nazi governor (Reichskommissar) of the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, Arthur Seyss-Inquart
Arthur Seyss-Inquart
Arthur Seyss-Inquart was a Chancellor of Austria, lawyer and later Nazi official in pre-Anschluss Austria, the Third Reich and for wartime Germany in Poland and the Netherlands...
,
offered to open Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The current position of Amsterdam as capital city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is governed by the constitution of August 24, 1815 and its successors. Amsterdam has a population of 783,364 within city limits, an urban population...
to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population. Smith and Strong, representing SHAEF, along with Major General Ivan Susloparov
Ivan Susloparov
Ivan Alekseyevich Susloparov was a Soviet general who served as the Military Liaison Mission Commander with the French government and the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe in 1944-45. He is mostly known as the person who signed for the Soviet Union the German Instrument of Surrender on May 7,...
representing the USSR, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld
Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld
Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld , later Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, was prince consort of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and father of six children, including the current monarch Queen Beatrix....
representing the Dutch government, and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand from 21st Army Group, met with Seyss-Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld
Achterveld
thumb|Church JozefkerkAchterveld is a village in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is a part of the municipality of Leusden, and lies about 8 km east of Amersfoort.The village is a catholic enclave in a protestant region. It has a neo-romanic church....
on 30 April. After threatening Seyss-Inquart with prosecution for war crimes, Smith successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the starving Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country, and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in Holland that would follow on 5 May.
Smith had to conduct another set of surrender negotiations, that of the German armed forces, in May 1945. Smith met with the representatives of the German Armed Forces high command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II.- Genesis :...
), Colonel General Alfred Jodl
Alfred Jodl
Alfred Josef Ferdinand Jodl was a German military commander, attaining the position of Chief of the Operations Staff of the Armed Forces High Command during World War II, acting as deputy to Wilhelm Keitel...
and Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg
Hans-Georg von Friedeburg
Hans-Georg von Friedeburg was the deputy commander of the U-Boat Forces of Nazi Germany and the last Commanding Admiral of the Kriegsmarine....
. Once again, Strong acted as translator. Smith took a hard line, threatening that unless terms were accepted, the Allies would seal the front, forcing the remaining Germans into Soviet hands, but made some concessions regarding a ceasefire before the surrender came into effect. On 7 May, Smith signed the surrender document, along with Susloparov and the French representative, Major General François Sevez
François Sevez
François Sevez was a French general during World War II. Sevez was present at the German surrender in Rheims, and signed the German Instrument of Surrender as the official witness.-Military career:...
.
Ambassador to the Soviet Union
Lucius D. Clay
General Lucius Dubignon Clay was an American officer and military governor of the United States Army known for his administration of Germany immediately after World War II. Clay was deputy to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1945; deputy military governor, Germany 1946; commander in chief, U.S....
. When Eisenhower took over as Chief of Staff of the United States Army
Chief of Staff of the United States Army
The Chief of Staff of the Army is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Army, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Army, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the Army; and is in...
in November 1945, he summoned Smith to become his Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations and Planning. However, soon after his arrival back in Washington he was asked by President Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States . As President Franklin D. Roosevelt's third vice president and the 34th Vice President of the United States , he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his...
and Secretary of State
United States Secretary of State
The United States Secretary of State is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with foreign affairs. The Secretary is a member of the Cabinet and the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in line of succession and order of precedence...
James F. Byrnes
James F. Byrnes
James Francis Byrnes was an American statesman from the state of South Carolina. During his career, Byrnes served as a member of the House of Representatives , as a Senator , as Justice of the Supreme Court , as Secretary of State , and as the 104th Governor of South Carolina...
to become the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union. In putting Smith's nomination for the post before Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
, Truman asked for and received special legislation permitting Smith to retain his permanent military rank of major general.
The ambassadorship was not a success. Although no fault of Smith's, during his tenure the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union rapidly deteriorated as the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
set in. Smith's tenacity of purpose came across as a lack of flexibility and did nothing to allay Soviet fears about American intentions. He became thoroughly disillusioned and turned into a hardened cold warrior who saw the Soviet Union as a secretive, totalitarian and antagonistic state. In My Three Years in Moscow (1950), Smith's account of his time as ambassador, he wrote:
Smith returned to the United States in March 1949. Truman offered him the post of Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs
Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs
The Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs is a position within the American Department of State that leads the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs charged with implementing American foreign policy in Europe and Eurasia, and with advising the Under Secretary for...
but Smith declined the appointment, preferring to return to military duty. He was appointed commander of First United States Army at Fort Jay
Fort Jay
Fort Jay is a harbor fortification and the name of the former Army post located on Governors Island in New York Harbor. Fort Jay is the oldest defensive structure on the island, built to defend Upper New York Bay, but has served other purposes...
, Governors Island
Governors Island
Governors Island is a island in Upper New York Bay, approximately one-half mile from the southern tip of Manhattan Island and separated from Brooklyn by Buttermilk Channel. It is legally part of the borough of Manhattan in New York City...
, New York. The post, his first command since 1918, was an easy job for generous pay. Throughout the war, Smith had been troubled by a recurring stomach ulcer. Now it became acute; no longer able eat a normal diet, he was suffering from malnutrition
Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess , or in the wrong proportions....
. Smith was admitted to Walter Reed Hospital, where the doctors decided to remove most of his stomach. This did cure his ulcer, but he remained undernourished and thin.
Director of Central Intelligence
In 1950, Truman selected Smith as Director of Central IntelligenceDirector of Central Intelligence
The Office of United States Director of Central Intelligence was the head of the United States Central Intelligence Agency, the principal intelligence advisor to the President and the National Security Council, and the coordinator of intelligence activities among and between the various United...
(DCI), the head of the Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
The Central Intelligence Agency is a civilian intelligence agency of the United States government. It is an executive agency and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers...
(CIA). Since the post had been established in 1946, there had been three directors, none of whom had wanted the job. The 1949 Intelligence Survey Group had produced the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report
Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report
The Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report was one of the most influential evaluations of the functioning of the United States Intelligence Community, and in particular, the Central Intelligence Agency...
, which found that the CIA had failed in its responsibilities in both the coordination and production of intelligence. In response, the National Security Council
United States National Security Council
The White House National Security Council in the United States is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials and is part of the Executive Office of the...
accepted the conclusions and recommendations of the report. It remained to implement them. In May 1950 President Truman decided that Smith was the man he needed for the CIA. Before Smith could assume the post on 7 October, there was a major intelligence failure. The North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
n invasion of South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
in June 1950, which started the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
, took the administration entirely by surprise and raised fears of a third world war. Since Smith knew little about the Agency, he asked for a deputy who did. Sidney Souers
Sidney Souers
Sidney William Souers was an American admiral and intelligence expert. He held the posts of:* Director of Central Intelligence, Central Intelligence Group, 1946* Executive Secretary, National Security Council, 1947–1950...
, the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council, recommended William Harding Jackson
William Harding Jackson
William Harding Jackson was a U.S. civilian administrator, New York lawyer, and investment banker who served as Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Jackson also served briefly under President Dwight D...
, one of the authors of the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report, to Smith. Jackson accepted the post of Deputy Director on three conditions, one of which was "no bawlings out".
Smith and Jackson moved to reorganize the agency in line with the recommendations of the Dulles-Jackson-Correa Report. They streamlined procedures for gathering and disseminating intelligence. On 10 October, Smith was asked to prepare estimates for the Wake Island Conference
Wake Island Conference
15 October 1950 U.S. President Harry S. Truman and General Douglas MacArthur met on Wake Island to "confer with General [Douglas] MacArthur about the progress of the war [in Korea] and that he would meet him between here and Korea so that General MacArthur would not have to be away from the troops...
between the President and General Douglas MacArthur
Douglas MacArthur
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was an American general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was a Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II. He received the Medal of Honor for his service in the...
. Smith insisted that the estimates be simple, readable, conclusive and useful rather that mere background. They reflected the best information available, but unfortunately, one estimate concluded that the Chinese would not intervene in Korea, another major intelligence failure. Four months after the outbreak of war, the Agency had produced no coordinated estimate of the situation in Korea. Smith created a new Office of National Estimates (ONE) under the direction of William L. Langer
William L. Langer
William Leonard Langer was the chair of the history department at Harvard University and the World War II volunteer head of the Research and Analysis branch of the Office of Strategic Services...
, the Harvard historian who had led the Research and Analysis branch of the wartime Office of Strategic Services
Office of Strategic Services
The Office of Strategic Services was a United States intelligence agency formed during World War II. It was the wartime intelligence agency, and it was a predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency...
(OSS). Langer's staff created procedures that were followed for the next two decades. Smith stepped up efforts to obtain economic, psychological, and photo intelligence. By 1 December Smith had formed a Directorate for Administration. The Agency would ultimately be divided by function into three directorates: Administration, Plans, and Intelligence.
Smith is remembered in the CIA as its first successful DCI, and one of its most effective, who redefined its structure and mission. The CIA's expansive covert action program remained the responsibility of Frank Wisner
Frank Wisner
Frank Gardiner Wisner was head of Office of Strategic Services operations in southeastern Europe at the end of World War II, and the head of the Directorate of Plans of the Central Intelligence Agency during the 1950s....
's quasi-independent Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), but Smith began to bring OPC under the DCI's control. In early January 1951 he made Allen Dulles the first Deputy Director for Plans (DDP), to supervise both OPC and the CIA's separate espionage organization, the Office of Special Operations (OSO). Not until January 1952 were all intelligence functions consolidated under a Deputy Director for Intelligence (DDI). Wisner succeeded Dulles as DDP in August 1951, and it took until August 1952 to merge OSO and OPC, each of which had its own culture, methods, and pay scales, into an effective, single directorate. By consolidating responsibility for covert operations, Smith made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for them. Smith wanted the CIA to become a career service. Before the war, the so-called "Manchu Law" limited the duration of an officer's temporary assignments, which effectively prevented anyone from making a career as a general staff officer. There were no schools for intelligence training, and staffs had little to do in peacetime. Career officers therefore tended to avoid such work unless they aspired to be military attaché
Military attaché
A military attaché is a military expert who is attached to a diplomatic mission . This post is normally filled by a high-ranking military officer who retains the commission while serving in an embassy...
s. Smith consolidated training under a Director of Training and developed a career service program.
When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander Europe in 1951, he asked for Smith to serve as his chief of staff again. Truman turned down the request, stating that the DCI was a more important post. Eisenhower therefore took Lieutenant General Alfred Gruenther
Alfred Gruenther
Alfred Maximilian Gruenther was the youngest World War II Major General and after the war, as a four-star General, served as the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe from 1953 to 1956.-Biography:...
with him as his chief of staff. When Eisenhower subsequently recommended Gruenther's elevation to four-star rank, Truman decided that Smith should be promoted also. However, Smith's name was omitted from the promotion list. Truman then announced that no one would be promoted until Smith was, which occurred on 1 August 1951. Smith retired from the Army upon leaving the CIA on 9 February 1953.
Under Secretary of State
On 11 January 1953, Eisenhower, now president-electPresident-elect
An -elect is a political candidate who has been elected to an office but who has not yet been sworn in or officially taken office. These may include an incoming president, senator, representative, governor and mayor.Analogously, the term "designate" An -elect is a political candidate who has been...
, announced that Smith would become Under Secretary of State
Under Secretary of State
The Under Secretary of State, from 1919 to 1972, was the second-ranking official at the United States Department of State , serving as the Secretary's principal deputy, chief assistant, and Acting Secretary in the event of the Secretary's absence...
. Smith's appointment was confirmed by the United States Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
on 6 February and he resigned as DCI three days later. In May 1954, Smith traveled to Europe in an attempt to convince the British to participate in an intervention to avert French defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu
Battle of Dien Bien Phu
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was the climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minh communist revolutionaries. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that...
. When this failed, he reached an agreement with the Soviet Foreign Minister, Vyacheslav Molotov
Vyacheslav Molotov
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov was a Soviet politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s, when he rose to power as a protégé of Joseph Stalin, to 1957, when he was dismissed from the Presidium of the Central Committee by Nikita Khrushchev...
, to partition Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
into two separate states. In 1953, the President of Guatemala
President of Guatemala
The title of President of Guatemala has been the usual title of the leader of Guatemala since 1839, when that title was assumed by Mariano Rivera Paz...
, Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán
Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán
Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán was a Guatemalan military officer and politician who served as Defense Minister of Guatemala from 1944–1951, and as President of Guatemala from 1951 to 1954....
, threatened to nationalize land belonging to the United Fruit Company
United Fruit Company
It had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. Critics often accused it of exploitative neocolonialism and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the...
. Smith ordered the American ambassador in Guatemala to put a CIA plan for a Guatemalan coup into effect, which was accomplished by the following year. Smith left the State Department on 1 October 1954 and took up a position with the United Fruit Company. He also served as President and Chairman of the Board of the Associated Missile Products Company and AMF Atomics Incorporated, Vice Chairman of American Machine and Foundry (AMF) and a director of RCA
RCA
RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. The RCA trademark is currently owned by the French conglomerate Technicolor SA through RCA Trademark Management S.A., a company owned by Technicolor...
and Corning Incorporated.
After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954, Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts. He was a member of the National Security Training Commission from 1955 to 1957, the National War College
National War College
The National War College of the United States is a school in the National Defense University. It is housed in Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C., the third-oldest Army post still active. It was officially established on July 1, 1946, as an upgraded replacement for the...
board of consultants from 1956 to 1959, the Office of Defense Mobilization
Office of Defense Mobilization
The Office of Defense Mobilization was an independent agency of the United States government whose function was to plan, coordinate, direct and control all wartime mobilization activities of the federal government, including manpower, economic stabilization, and transport operations...
Special Stockpile Advisory Committee from 1957 to 1958, the President's Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program
Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program
The U.S. President’s Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program was created by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 22, 1956...
from 1956 to 1957, and the President's Committee on Disarmament in 1958. Smith was a consultant at the Special Projects Office (Disarmament) in the Executive Office of the President from 1955 to 1956. He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Council of the President's Committee on Fund Raising, and as a member-at-large from 1958 to 1961. In recognition of his other former boss, he was a member of the George C. Marshall Foundation Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1961.
Death and legacy
In 1955, Smith was approached to perform the voice-over and opening scene for the movie To Hell And BackTo Hell and Back
To Hell and Back may refer to:*To Hell and Back, an autobiographical book by Audie Murphy*To Hell and Back , a film adaptation of the autobiography starring Audie Murphy as himself*To Hell and Back by power metal band Sinergy...
(1955), which was based on the autobiography of Audie Murphy
Audie Murphy
Audie Leon Murphy was a highly decorated and famous soldier. Through LIFE magazine's July 16, 1945 issue , he became one the most famous soldiers of World War II and widely regarded as the most decorated American soldier of the war...
. He accepted, and had small parts in the movie, most notably in the beginning, where he was dressed in his old service uniform. He narrated several parts of the movie, referring constantly to "the foot soldier". Smith was portrayed on screen by Alexander Knox
Alexander Knox
Alexander Knox was a Canadian actor and author of adventure novels set in the Great Lakes area during the 19th century.-Biography:...
in The Longest Day
The Longest Day (film)
The Longest Day is a 1962 war film based on the 1959 history book The Longest Day by Cornelius Ryan, about "D-Day", the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, during World War II....
(1962), Edward Binns in Patton
Patton (film)
Patton is a 1970 American biographical war film about U.S. General George S. Patton during World War II. It stars George C. Scott, Karl Malden, Michael Bates, and Karl Michael Vogler. It was directed by Franklin J. Schaffner from a script by Francis Ford Coppola and Edmund H...
(1970) and Timothy Bottoms
Timothy Bottoms
-Early life:Bottoms was born in Santa Barbara, California, the eldest son of Betty and James "Bud" Bottoms, who is a sculptor and art teacher. He is the brother of actors Joseph Bottoms , Sam Bottoms and Ben Bottoms . In 1967, Bottoms toured Europe as part of the Santa Barbara Madrigal...
in Ike: Countdown to D-Day
Ike: Countdown to D-Day
Ike: Countdown to D-Day is a 2004 American television film originally aired on the American television channel A&E and was directed by Robert Harmon and written by Lionel Chetwynd....
. On television he has been portrayed by John Guerrasio in Cambridge Spies
Cambridge Spies
Cambridge Spies is a 2003 four-part BBC television drama concerning the lives of the best-known quartet of the Cambridge Five Soviet spies from 1934 to the 1951 defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean to the Soviet Union...
(2003), Charles Napier
Charles Napier (actor)
Charles L. Napier was an American actor, known for his portrayals of square-jawed tough guys and military types.-Early life:...
in War and Remembrance
War and Remembrance
War and Remembrance is a novel by Herman Wouk, published in 1978, which is the sequel to The Winds of War. It continues the story of the extended Henry family and the Jastrow family starting on 15 December 1941 and ending on 6 August 1945. This novel was adapted into a mini-series presented on...
(1989), Don Fellows
Don Fellows
Don Fellows was an American actor, born in Salt Lake City, Utah, who spent the bulk of his career acting in England, mostly in television....
in The Last Days of Patton
The Last Days of Patton
The Last Days of Patton is a 1986 made-for-television film sequel to the 1970 film Patton, which portrays the last few months of the general's life. George C. Scott reprises the role of General George S. Patton, and Eva Marie Saint portrays Beatrice Patton, the general's wife. The film was...
(1986) and J.D. Cannon in Ike: The War Years
Ike (TV miniseries)
Ike is a 1979 television miniseries about the life of Dwight D. Eisenhower. The screenplay by Melville Shavelson was based on Kay Summersby's 1948 memoir Eisenhower Was My Boss and her 1975 autobiography, Past Forgetting: My Love Affair. Directed by Boris Sagal and Melville Shavelson, the...
(1979).
Smith suffered a heart attack
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction or acute myocardial infarction , commonly known as a heart attack, results from the interruption of blood supply to a part of the heart, causing heart cells to die...
on 9 August 1961 at his home in Washington, DC, and died in the ambulance on the way to Walter Reed Army Hospital. Although entitled to a Special Full Honor Funeral, at the request of his widow Mary Eleanor Smith, a simple joint service funeral was held, patterned after the one given to Marshall in 1959. She selected a grave site for her husband in Section 7 of Arlington National Cemetery
Arlington National Cemetery
Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia, is a military cemetery in the United States of America, established during the American Civil War on the grounds of Arlington House, formerly the estate of the family of Confederate general Robert E. Lee's wife Mary Anna Lee, a great...
close to Marshall's grave. She was buried next to him in 1963. His papers are in the Eisenhower Presidential Center
Eisenhower Presidential Center
The Eisenhower Presidential Center, officially known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum or Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, includes the Eisenhower presidential library, President Dwight David Eisenhower's boyhood home, Museum, and gravesite...
in Abilene, Kansas
Abilene, Kansas
Abilene is a city in and the county seat of Dickinson County, Kansas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 6,844.-History:...
.
Awards and decorations
{| width="100%"|valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US military decorations
|-
|
|Army Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf cluster
Oak leaf cluster
An oak leaf cluster is a common device which is placed on U.S. Army and Air Force awards and decorations to denote those who have received more than one bestowal of a particular decoration. The number of oak leaf clusters typically indicates the number of subsequent awards of the decoration...
s
|-
|
|Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Navy Distinguished Service Medal
The Navy Distinguished Service Medal is a military award of the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps which was first created in 1919. The decoration is the Navy and Marine Corps equivalent to the Army Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast...
|-
|
|Legion of Merit
Legion of Merit
The Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements...
|-
|
|Bronze Star Medal
Bronze Star Medal
The Bronze Star Medal is a United States Armed Forces individual military decoration that may be awarded for bravery, acts of merit, or meritorious service. As a medal it is awarded for merit, and with the "V" for valor device it is awarded for heroism. It is the fourth-highest combat award of the...
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US Military Service Medals
|-
|
|World War I Victory Medal with three battle clasps
|-
|
|American Defense Service Medal
American Defense Service Medal
The American Defense Service Medal is a decoration of the United States military, recognizing service before America’s entry into the Second World War but during the initial years of the European conflict.-Criteria:...
|-
|
|European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
The European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal is a military decoration of the United States armed forces which was first created on November 6, 1942 by issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt...
with seven service star
Service star
A service star, also referred to as a battle star, campaign star, or engagement star, is an attachment to a United States military decoration which denotes participation in military campaigns or multiple bestowals of the same award. Service stars are typically issued for campaign medals, service...
s
|-
|
|World War II Victory Medal
World War II Victory Medal
The World War II Victory Medal is a decoration of the United States military which was created by an act of Congress in July 1945. The decoration commemorates military service during World War II and is awarded to any member of the United States military, including members of the armed forces of...
|-
|
|Army of Occupation Medal
Army of Occupation Medal
The Army of Occupation Medal is a military award of the United States military which was established by the United States War Department on 5 April 1946. The medal was created in the aftermath of the Second World War to recognize those who had performed occupation service in either Germany or Japan...
with "Germany" clasp
|-
|
|National Defense Service Medal
National Defense Service Medal
The National Defense Service Medal is a military service medal of the United States military originally commissioned by President Dwight D. Eisenhower...
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |US Civil Service Medals
|-
|
|National Security Medal
National Security Medal
The National Security Medal was a decoration of the United States of America officially established by President Harry S. Truman in Executive Order 10431 of January 19, 1953...
|-
|- bgcolor = "#ccccff" align=center
| colspan=2 |International and Foreign Awards
|-
|
|Grand Croix de 1'Ordre de la Couronne
Order of the Crown (Belgium)
The Order of the Crown is an Order of Belgium which was created on 15 October 1897 by King Leopold II in his capacity as ruler of the Congo Free State. The order was first intended to recognize heroic deeds and distinguished service achieved from service in the Congo Free State - many of which acts...
with palm (Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre with palm (Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
)
|-
|
|Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
)
|-
|
|Medal of Military Merit of the Army, First Class
Order of the Merit of Chile
The Order of the Merit of Chile is a Chilean military decoration and was created in 1929. Succeeding the Medal of the Merit, it was created during the term of the President Germán Riesco through the Minister of War decree No. 1350 on September 4, 1906...
, Grand Cross (Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
)
|-
|
|Order of the White Lion
Order of the White Lion
The Order of the White Lion is the highest order of the Czech Republic. It continues a Czechoslovak order of the same name created in 1922 as an award for foreigners....
, Star II Class (Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
)
|-
|
|War Cross 1939–1945
Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945
The Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 is a military decoration of the former state of Czechoslovakia which was issued for those who had provided great service the Czechoslovak state during the years of World War II.- Description :On December 20, 1940, the Czech government in exile in London ordered...
(Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
)
|-
|
|Legion of Honor, Grand Officer (France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre 1914–1918 with palm (France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre 1939–1945
Croix de guerre
The Croix de guerre is a military decoration of France. It was first created in 1915 and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was awarded during World War I, again in World War II, and in other conflicts...
with palm (France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
)
|-
|
|Order of the Bath
Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate mediæval ceremony for creating a knight, which involved bathing as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath...
, Knight Commander (United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
)
|-
|
|Order of the British Empire
Order of the British Empire
The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is an order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by George V of the United Kingdom. The Order comprises five classes in civil and military divisions...
, Knight Commander (United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
)
|-
|
|Order of the Oak Crown
Order of the Oak Crown
The Order of the Oak Crown is an Order of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.-History:The Order of the Oak Crown was instituted by the Grand Duke-King William II, in 1841...
, Grand Cross (Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
)
|-
|
|Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross (Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
)
|-
|
|Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
)
|-
|
|Order of Polonia Restituta, II Class (Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
)
|-
|
|Order of Virtuti Militari, Silver Cross (Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
)
|-
|
|Cross of Grunwald
Cross of Grunwald
Order Krzyża Grunwaldu 1943-1960, Krzyż Grunwaldu 1960-1992 was a military decoration created in November 1943 by the High Command of Gwardia Ludowa, a World War II Polish resistance movement in Poland organised by the Polish Workers Party...
, Second Class (Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
)
|-
|
|Order of Nichan Iftikhar
Nichan Iftikhar
Nichan Iftikhar or Atiq Nishan-i-Iftikhar or Nişan-i İftihar , was an Ottoman and Tunisian honorary order founded in 1835 by Al-Mustafa ibn Mahmud...
(Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
)
|-
|
|Order of Kutuzov
Order of Kutuzov
The Order of Kutuzov is a Soviet and Russian military award, named after famous Russian Field Marshal Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov ....
, First Class (USSR)
|-
|}
Source: