Western Chalukyas
Encyclopedia
The Western Chalukya Empire (Kannada:) ruled most of the western Deccan
, South India
, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan
in Karnataka
and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the sixth century Chalukya dynasty
of Badami
. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas
of Vengi
, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta
empire of Manyakheta
controlled most of deccan and central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the Paramara
of Malwa, Tailapa II
a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Somesvara I
who moved the capital to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires of southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty
of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi
. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas enabling their domination in the region. Vast areas between the Narmada River
in the north and Kaveri River
in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri
, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the twelfth century.
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi
, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple
at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit
.
Knowledge of the Western Chalukyas history has come through examination of the numerous excavated Kannada language inscriptions
left by the kings and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature
such as Gada Yuddha (982) in Kannada by Ranna
and Vikramankadeva Charitam (1120) in Sanskrit by Bilhana
. The earliest inscription is dated 957, during the rule of Tailapa II
when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka
. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of sixth century while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas.
Inscriptional evidence suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of Banavasi
-12000 province (967), in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II. A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II
by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramara
s of Central India in 973. After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western deccan by subjugating the Paramara
and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River. However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Somesvara I in 1042.
The intense antagonism between the kingdoms of the western deccan and those of the Tamil kingdoms
during the 6th and 7th centuries, again came to the fore in the eleventh century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab
region of the Krishna
and Godavari River
called Vengi
(coastal Andhra Pradesh
). The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty
fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource. The forays of the Chola Dynasty
into Kannada country had started by the end of the 9th century AD itself by the Medieval Cholas
under King Aditya I
, vanquisher of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram
and conqueror of the Pandyas of Madurai
, also occupied very large parts of the Kannada country and had marital ties with the Gangas
, way back in 885 AD. "Aditya I
built many temples of Siva
spread over the area between Bhatkal
on the Sahyadri coast on the Arabian Sea
where he built a temple for Siva
, to the country between Kanchipuram
, Kumbakonam
, Rameshvaram and the Thamiraparani
basin on the Bay of Bengal
, which is a measure of the extent of his territories mainly between 880–902 AD". The kingdoms of Deccan and the eastern coast were subordinates, feudatories of the Cholas or other kingdoms like the Chalukyas between 1000–1075 AD paid tribute to the Cholas.
This process continued for nearly another two centuries under Aditya I
's son Parantaka Chola I (904–957 AD), who too had marital ties with Ganga Dynasty
King Prithvipati II of Gangavadi, with the Banas, Vaidumbas and Kadambas
of Banavasi
as his subordinates in the Kannada country. Sundara Chola also known as Parantaka Chola II
, after regaining Kanchipuram
and Thanjavur after routing the Rashtrakutas in Tamil
country, restored Chola hegemony over Ganga Dynasty
of Gangavadi, the Banas, the Kadambas
and the Vaidumbas and performed an obesiance at the Siva
temple constructed by Aditya I
at Bhatkal
on the Konkan
coast. The Chola hegemony in Kannada country continued into the 10th century AD, with subjucation of rulers and levying of tribute on them like the Nolambas, Tadigaipadi (large tracts of land in Chitradurga
district extending up to Hubli-Dharwar belt in modern Karnataka
) in addition to annexation of Gangavadi under the rule over of Rajaraja Chola I
(985–1014), which also continued under his son Rajendra Chola I
(1014–1044).
Emperor Rajaraja Chola I
conquered parts of Chalukya territory in present day South Karnataka
by subjugating the Western Ganga Dynasty of Gangavadi
Initially "Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi' all parts of modern Mysore, were conquered and annexed' under Raja Raja Chola I between 990–995 AD itself, when the first Chalukya king Tailapa II
was ruling Manyakheta
. Subsequently Tailapa II
's army had displaced a Chola commander, possibly from a part of Nolambavadi close to his own dominions. When King Satyasraya
succeeded Tailapa II
to the throne, the Cholas under Raja Raja Chola I had made further expansion to their territories and had also established themselves at the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi
through marital and political ties. The Eastern Chalukya king Saktivarman had been installed by Raja Raja Chola I at Vengi
and he was a subordinate of the great Chola monarch who helped him. In retaliation Satyasraya
invaded Vengi
where in 1006 AD, his general Bayalanambi reduced the forts of Dhanyakataka (Dharanikota) and Yanamandala (Yanamadala) to ashes and established himself at Chebrolu in Guntur district. However, Satyasraya
was forced out of his capital in his war with Raja Raja Chola I's forces led by his son Rajendra Chola I
"marched up to Donur, he also captured Banvasi, a good part of the Raichur doab and sacked Manyakheta" itself, which was the Western Chalukyan capital. In the same war, he suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of "another section of the Chola army operating from Vengi advanced on Kulpak (Kollipakkai of Tamil inscriptions) 45 miles north-west of Hyderabad and captured its fortress. King Satyasraya
regained his kingdom with great difficulty, following withdrawal of the Chola forces to south of the Tungabhadra basin. Raja Raja Chola I, who presented the riches earned from this war to the Brihadeeswarar Temple
of Thanjavur.
During the rule of the Chalukya ruler Jayasimha II
, feuds with the Cholas under Rajendra Chola I continued, with the Chalukyas seeking to impose Vimaladitya-II as the king of Vengi
, capital of the Eastern Chalukyas
while the Cholas wanting to install Rajaraja Narendra, son of Kundavai, sister of Rajendra Chola I
. Jayasimha II
invaded and occupied the Chola-controlled Bellary and Gangavadi and Vimaladitya-II, seeking to occupy the Vengi throne occupied Bezwada (modern Vijayawada) creating difficulties for the Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra. Rajendra Chola I
aided the Vengi Chalukyas by sending one part of his massive army to Raichur
, then on the borders of Kannada and Telugu
countries, and another to Vengi
itself. Jayasimha II
was defeated at Maski
and the forces of his feudatories and the claimant to the Eastern Chalukya throne, Vijayaditya-II suffered several defeatsat the hands of the Cholas at Vengi
, which secured that country for Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra, before heading further north and conquering Kalinga
, whose king also had sided with Jayasimha II
. However, Jayasimha II
was able to subdue the Paramara
of central India.
During the rule of Rajadhiraja Chola I (1042–1056), Dannada, Kulpak, Koppam, the fortress of Kampili, Pundur, Yetagiri and the Chalukyan capital Kalyani ruled by Somesvara I
were sacked. In 1053, Rajendra Chola II
after defeating the Chalukyans in war advanced to Kollapura where he erected a pillar of victory before returning to his capital at Gangaikondacholapuram. It is known from records that Jayasimha's son, Somesvara I
, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in 1042 In 1066, the Western Chalukya ruler Somesvara's forces were defeated by the next Chola ruler Virarajendra, who then again defeated the Western Chalukyas at Kudalasangama
, and set up a pillar of victory on the banks of the Tungabhadra. However, Somesvara I
's attempts to restore the power of the Chalukyas ended in failure. especially after getting defeated by the Cholas not less than 5 times and losing substantial territories. Thus, possessions of the Cholas in Kannada country largely remained intact during the period 990–1115 AD.
In a war at Koppal, Somesvara I
seemed to be winning when the Chola emperor Rajadhiraja Chola I, was killed on the battle-field, but Rajendra Chola II
took charge of the Chola forces which were on the verge of distantegration, re-mobilized them and despite their emperor having been killed, inflicted a crushing defeat on Somesvara I
, who subsequently also lost to emperor Virarajendra Chola
in four battles at Dannada, Visayavadai (modern Vijayawada), Kurnool
and finally at Kudalasangama
.In 1068 Somesvara I, suffering from an incurable illness, drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River (Paramayoga). while some argue that the cause of suicide might be humiliation of defeats. Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south, Somesvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan
, Gujarat, Malwa and his rule.
Till the invasion by Virarajendra Chola
of Chalukya country during the rule of Somesvara II
, resulting initially in partition of the Chalukya kingdom with and subsequently installation of Vikramaditya VI
in-charge of the southern areas of the Chalukyas bordering mainly the Gangavadi and Kongu territories of the Cholas four Chalukya kings suffered continuous and crushing defeats at the hands of their Chola adversaries. Vikramaditya VI
, an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi
in the southern deccan when Somesvara II was the king. Married to a Chola princess (a daughter of Virarajendra Chola), Vikramaditya VI maintained a friendly alliance with them. After the death of the Chola king in 1070, Vikramaditya VI
anxious of the ambitions of Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi, a son of the Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra, proceeded to the Tamil kingdom and installed his brother-in-law, Adhirajendra
, the son of Virarajendra Chola
at Gangaikondacholapuram, but spent more time at Kanchipuram
, where there was a rebellion, possibly in support of Rajendra Chalukya, a version supported by presence of his sandhi vigrahis at the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam. He returned after a period of one month, only to hear that Rajendra Chalukya had taken over as the Chola monarch with the title Kulottunga Chola I after the assassination of Athirajendra Chola
. At the sametime Vikramaditya VI undermined his brother, Somesvara II, by winning the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories: the Hoysala, the Seuna and the Kadambas
of Hangal. Anticipating a civil war, Somesvara II sought help from Vikramaditya VI's enemies, Kulothunga Chola I and the Banavasi Kadambas of Revatidwipa/Goa
. In the ensuing conflict of 1076, after losing to Kulottunga Chola I who made himself the master of Gangavadi, Vikramaditya VI finally emerged victorious, imprisoned his brother Somesvara II
and proclaimed himself king of the Chalukya empire.
The fifty year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north and south, he successfully tackled the imperial Cholas and regained Vengi in 1118 AD when their emperor Kulottunga Chola I was in his death bed, and also retained Vengi for a few years This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds). Vengi
however, was quickly regained by the Cholas after the demise of emperor Kulottunga Chola I and the accession to the Chola throne by his son and successor Vikrama Chola
who defeated the successor of Vikramaditya VI
, Somesvara III
The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance. Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far away Kashmir
, eulogised the king in his well known work Vikramankadeva Charita. Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion.
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted the empire, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel. In the decades after Vikramaditya VI's death in 1126, the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command. The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other. By the time of Jagadhekamalla II
, the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor, Tailapa III
, was defeated by Kakatiya Prola in 1149. Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas. Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule, the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire. In any case, in the internecine wars among the small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas or Kalachuris, the Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms steadily increasing their stock and ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Kalachuris and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sending them into oblivion. With the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years followed around AD 1149, after the defeat of Tailapa III
by the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana
where he based himself with his son Narasimha I
in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve, mainly due to incompetency of its rulers after 1120 AD. Hoysala Narasimha I
defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region. In 1157 the Kalachuri
s under Bijjala II
captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district
.
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras. Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (Mahamandaleshwar) over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas. However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion, Somesvara IV
made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani. Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict. During this time, Hoysala Veera Ballala II
was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Somesvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris. The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189.
The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III
even collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II
, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and sounded the death-knell of the Western Chalukyas
in a series of wars with Somesvara IV
between 1185–1190 AD, the last Chalukya king whose territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. In contrast, the Cholas would be stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the equally great Pandiyan
empire and ceasing to exist by 1280 AD.
The overall effort by Somesvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Somesvara IV into exile in Banavasi
1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time.
The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have a male heir. The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas
, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor. Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief minister), Sandhivigrahika, and Dharmadhikari (chief justice). Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.
The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi-12000, Nolambavadi-32000, Gangavadi-96000, each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as in Belavola-300. The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas (groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village). A Mandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official. Tailapa II
himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta
rule. Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Somesvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas. Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda.
The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold pagodas
with Kannada and Nagari
legends which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion, Sri in Kannada, a spearhead, the king's title, a lotus and others. Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya, Somesvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla, Somesvara II used Bhuvaneka malla, Lakshmideva's coin carried Sri Lasha, and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade. The Alupas, a feudatory, minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari
legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya. Lakkundi
in Gadag district
and Sudi in Dharwad district
were the main mints (Tankhashaley). Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighting 96 grains
, Dramma weighted 65 grains, Kalanju 48 grains, Kasu 15 grains, Manjadi 2.5 grains, Akkam 1.25 grains and Pana 9.6 grain.
Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice, pulses
, and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca
and betel
being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates.
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas
. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu
Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century.
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the tenth century, coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi
, was a setback to Jainism
. The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism
in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant. Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged, Shravanabelagola
and Kambadahalli
. The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara
's Advaita philosophy. The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal
and Balligavi
. There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the twelfth century. Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system. In his Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote "work is worship" (Kayakave Kailasa). Also known as the Lingayats (worshipers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women. This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood. Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam
, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga
). He later wrote Sribhashya, a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara. Ramanujacharya's stay in Melkote
resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana
converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries. Akka Mahadevi
, Allama Prabhu
, and a host of Basavanna's followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva. The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court, Harihara
and Raghavanka
, were Virashaivas. This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.
The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support. The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period. Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi's and Kalachuri
queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti
movement is well known. Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals. Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati
(a custom in which a dead man's widow used to immolate
herself on her husband’s funeral pyre
) though present was on a voluntary basis. Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains
who preferred to fast to death (Sallekhana), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse.
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, Brahmin
s enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha
, Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara
. These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (Saraswati Bhandara). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen. The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki), subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthasastra.
The Western Chalukya era was a time of substantial literary activity in Kannada and Sanskrit. In a golden age of Kannada literature, Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas. More than two hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded. Early works by Brahmin
writers were on the epics, Ramayana
, Mahabharata
, Bhagavata
, Puranas
and Vedas
. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time. The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II also lived in the Western Chalukya Empire.
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna
, grammarian Nagavarma II
and Basava
. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyasraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature". He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyasraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima
and Duryodhana
using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war
. He wrote Ajitha purana
in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects. His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are the best known among them.
In Sanskrit, a well known poem (Mahakavya
) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana
recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Somesvara II.
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Somesvara III
(1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc. While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time.
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara
became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara
, in the court of Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India. An Englishman
Colebrooke later translated into English
the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system. Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara.
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of deccan architecture. The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture
of the eighth century and the Hoysala architecture
popularised in the thirteenth century. The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab
region of present day Gadag district
in Karnataka. The dynasty's temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present day central Karnataka. Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag district), the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal
(Gadag district), the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii (Davangere district), the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali (Davangere district), the Siddhesvara Temple
at Haveri
(Haveri district
), the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district
) and the Mahadeva Temple
at Itagi (Koppal district
) are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects. The twelfth century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it "Emperor of Temples" (devalaya chakravarti) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI. The Kedareswara Temple (1060) at Balligavi
is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style. The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami
and Aihole
during their early phase of temple building activity, such as Mallikarjuna Temple, the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples.
The vimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas. To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe
turned (tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone
(Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorative Kirthimukha
(demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi. The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture
. This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida, one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture.
The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs. Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language. More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the twelfth century, many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India. Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana). This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called Lingayatism
) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas. At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written by Nagavarma I
, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna
(993), a book on medicine called Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II (1025).
Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in India, making up the majority of the southern part of the country. It rises a hundred meters high in the north, rising further to more than a kilometers high in the south, forming a raised triangle nested within the familiar downward-pointing triangle of...
, South India
South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area...
, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan
Basavakalyan
Basavakalyan is a town in Bidar District of the state of Karnataka, India, and was historically known as Kalyan.-History:Basavakalyan's history dates back to 3000 years with its name being mentioned in Guru Charitra....
in Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the sixth century Chalukya dynasty
Chalukya dynasty
The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi from the...
of Badami
Badami
Badami , formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from 540 to 757 AD. It is famous for rock cut and other structural temples...
. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 C.E. when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire...
of Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
, a separate dynasty. Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta
The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and the 10th centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. Rastrakutas in inscriptions represented as descendants of Satyaki, a Yadava well known...
empire of Manyakheta
Manyakheta
Manyakheta on the banks of Kagina River in Gulbarga district, Karnataka state was the capital of Rashtrakutas from . It is 40 km from Gulbarga city. The capital was moved from Mayurkhandi in Bidar district to Mānyakheṭa during the rule of Amoghavarsha I...
controlled most of deccan and central India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the Paramara
Paramara
Paramara is a Maratha, Gurjar,& Rajput clan of India.The Paramara clan belongs to the Agnivansha of Rajputs ancient Kshatriyas...
of Malwa, Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
who moved the capital to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires of southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas enabling their domination in the region. Vast areas between the Narmada River
Narmada River
The Narmada , also called Rewa is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent. It is the third largest river that completely flows within India after Ganges and Godavari...
in the north and Kaveri River
Kaveri River
The Kaveri , also spelled Cauvery in English, is a large Indian river. The origin of the river is traditionally placed at Talakaveri, Kodagu in the Western Ghats in Karnataka, flows generally south and east through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and across the southern Deccan plateau through the...
in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri
Kalachuri
Kalachuri Empire is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India and were called Chedi or Haihaya and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka...
, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the twelfth century.
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi
Lakkundi
Lakkundi in Gadag District of Karnataka is a tiny village on the way to Hampi from Hubli. Lakkundi 11 km from Gadag in the east...
, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple
Mahadeva Temple (Itagi)
Itagi is in Yalburga Taluk, Koppal District, in North Karnataka, Karnataka, India. It is about 7 km from Kuknur. It is near to Lakkundi about 20 km.Itagi is famous for the Chalukya style Mahadeva Temple...
at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
.
History
Epigraphy
Epigraphy Epigraphy Epigraphy (from the , literally "on-writing", is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; that is, the science of identifying the graphemes and of classifying their use as to cultural context and date, elucidating their meaning and assessing what conclusions can be...
left by the kings and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature
Western Chalukya literature
A large body of Western Chalukya literature in Kannada was produced during the reign of the Western Chalukya Empire in what is now southern India...
such as Gada Yuddha (982) in Kannada by Ranna
Ranna
Ranna was one of the earliest poets of Kannada language.Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called "three gems of Kannada literature".-Early days:Ranna was born on 949 C.E. in Muduvolalu Bagalkot district, Karnataka....
and Vikramankadeva Charitam (1120) in Sanskrit by Bilhana
Bilhana
Bilhana Kavi was an 11th-century Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the Caurapâñcâśikâ.According to legend, the Brahman Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, and had a secretive love affair. They were discovered, and Bilhana was thrown...
. The earliest inscription is dated 957, during the rule of Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of sixth century while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas.
Inscriptional evidence suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of Banavasi
Banavasi
Banavasi is an ancient temple town in Uttara Kannada District bordering Shivamogga district in the South Indian state of Karnataka .-History:Banavasi is one of the oldest towns in the Karnataka state...
-12000 province (967), in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II. A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II
Karka II
Karka II succeeded his uncle Kottigga Amoghavarsha to the Rashtrakuta throne. He had military successes against the Gurjaras, Rajputs and his feudatory, the Western Ganga King Marasimha II defeated the Pallavas...
by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramara
Paramara
Paramara is a Maratha, Gurjar,& Rajput clan of India.The Paramara clan belongs to the Agnivansha of Rajputs ancient Kshatriyas...
s of Central India in 973. After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western deccan by subjugating the Paramara
Paramara
Paramara is a Maratha, Gurjar,& Rajput clan of India.The Paramara clan belongs to the Agnivansha of Rajputs ancient Kshatriyas...
and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River. However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Somesvara I in 1042.
The intense antagonism between the kingdoms of the western deccan and those of the Tamil kingdoms
Ancient Tamil country
The Sangam period is the classical period in the history of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and other parts of South India, spanning about the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE...
during the 6th and 7th centuries, again came to the fore in the eleventh century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab
Doab
A Doab is a term used in India and Pakistan for a "tongue" or tract of land lying between two confluent rivers...
region of the Krishna
Krishna River
The Krishna River , is one of the longest rivers in central-southern India, about . It is also referred to as Krishnaveni in its original nomenclature...
and Godavari River
Godavari River
The Godavari is a river that runs from western to southern India and is considered to be one of the big river basins in India. With a length of 1465 km, it is the second longest river in India , that runs within the country and also the longest river in South India...
called Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
(coastal Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh , is one of the 28 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city by population is Hyderabad.The total GDP of Andhra Pradesh is $100 billion and is ranked third...
). The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource. The forays of the Chola Dynasty
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
into Kannada country had started by the end of the 9th century AD itself by the Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya...
under King Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
, vanquisher of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram, or Kanchi, is a temple city and a municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district...
and conqueror of the Pandyas of Madurai
Madurai
Madurai is the third largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It served as the capital city of the Pandyan Kingdom. It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and is famous for its temples built by Pandyan and...
, also occupied very large parts of the Kannada country and had marital ties with the Gangas
Gangas
The Western Ganga Dynasty was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over modern Orissa...
, way back in 885 AD. "Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
built many temples of Siva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
spread over the area between Bhatkal
Bhatkal
Bhatkal is also known as Batecala in some historical text especially in Portuguese history.Once ruled by Jain King Bhattakalanka and thus the name. Bhatkal is a port town in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India 126 km from Karwar. The town lies on NH-17 running between Mumbai and Mangalore...
on the Sahyadri coast on the Arabian Sea
Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui in northeastern Somalia and Kanyakumari in India...
where he built a temple for Siva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
, to the country between Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram, or Kanchi, is a temple city and a municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district...
, Kumbakonam
Kumbakonam
Kumbakonam , also spelt as Coombaconum in the records of British India , is a town and a special grade municipality in the Thanjavur district in the southeast Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located 40 kilometres from Thanjavur and 272 kilometres from Chennai, it is the headquarters of the Kumbakonam...
, Rameshvaram and the Thamiraparani
Thamiraparani
Thaamirabharani is a 2007 Indian Tamil film written and directed by Hari. The film stars Vishal, newcomer Bhanu, Prabhu, Vijayakumar, Nadhiya and Nassar in lead roles. The film's score and soundtrack are composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja...
basin on the Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal , the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered mostly by the Eastern Coast of India, southern coast of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to the west and Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the...
, which is a measure of the extent of his territories mainly between 880–902 AD". The kingdoms of Deccan and the eastern coast were subordinates, feudatories of the Cholas or other kingdoms like the Chalukyas between 1000–1075 AD paid tribute to the Cholas.
This process continued for nearly another two centuries under Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
's son Parantaka Chola I (904–957 AD), who too had marital ties with Ganga Dynasty
Ganga Dynasty
Ganga Dynasty is a name used for two unrelated dynasties who ruled parts of India:* The Western Ganga Dynasty, a kingdom in southern India, based in southern Karnataka, from the 3rd to the 10th centuries...
King Prithvipati II of Gangavadi, with the Banas, Vaidumbas and Kadambas
Kadambas
The Kadamba Dynasty was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they...
of Banavasi
Banavasi
Banavasi is an ancient temple town in Uttara Kannada District bordering Shivamogga district in the South Indian state of Karnataka .-History:Banavasi is one of the oldest towns in the Karnataka state...
as his subordinates in the Kannada country. Sundara Chola also known as Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II ruled for approximately twelve years. Parantaka II was also known by the name Madhurantakan Sundara Chola. He was the son of Arinjaya Chola. His mother’s name was Kalyani, a princes from the clan of Vaidumbas...
, after regaining Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram, or Kanchi, is a temple city and a municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district...
and Thanjavur after routing the Rashtrakutas in Tamil
Tamil people
Tamil people , also called Tamils or Tamilians, are an ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, India and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka. Historic and post 15th century emigrant communities are also found across the world, notably Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, Canada,...
country, restored Chola hegemony over Ganga Dynasty
Ganga Dynasty
Ganga Dynasty is a name used for two unrelated dynasties who ruled parts of India:* The Western Ganga Dynasty, a kingdom in southern India, based in southern Karnataka, from the 3rd to the 10th centuries...
of Gangavadi, the Banas, the Kadambas
Kadambas
The Kadamba Dynasty was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they...
and the Vaidumbas and performed an obesiance at the Siva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
temple constructed by Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
at Bhatkal
Bhatkal
Bhatkal is also known as Batecala in some historical text especially in Portuguese history.Once ruled by Jain King Bhattakalanka and thus the name. Bhatkal is a port town in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India 126 km from Karwar. The town lies on NH-17 running between Mumbai and Mangalore...
on the Konkan
Konkan
The Konkan also called the Konkan Coast or Karavali is a rugged section of the western coastline of India from Raigad to Mangalore...
coast. The Chola hegemony in Kannada country continued into the 10th century AD, with subjucation of rulers and levying of tribute on them like the Nolambas, Tadigaipadi (large tracts of land in Chitradurga
Chitradurga
Chitradurga is a town in the southern part of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is also the headquarters of Chitradurga district. Chitradurga was also known by the names Chitradurg, Chitrakaladurga, Chittaldurg. Chittaldrug was the name officially used by the British Govt.-Geography:Chitradurga is...
district extending up to Hubli-Dharwar belt in modern Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
) in addition to annexation of Gangavadi under the rule over of Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja Chola I
Raja Raja Chola I born Arunmozhi Thevar , popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE...
(985–1014), which also continued under his son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
(1014–1044).
Emperor Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja Chola I
Raja Raja Chola I born Arunmozhi Thevar , popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE...
conquered parts of Chalukya territory in present day South Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
by subjugating the Western Ganga Dynasty of Gangavadi
Mysore State
The Kingdom of Mysore was one of the three largest princely states within the erstwhile British Empire of India. Upon India gaining its independence in 1947, the Maharaja of Mysore merged his realm with the Union of India...
Initially "Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi' all parts of modern Mysore, were conquered and annexed' under Raja Raja Chola I between 990–995 AD itself, when the first Chalukya king Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
was ruling Manyakheta
Manyakheta
Manyakheta on the banks of Kagina River in Gulbarga district, Karnataka state was the capital of Rashtrakutas from . It is 40 km from Gulbarga city. The capital was moved from Mayurkhandi in Bidar district to Mānyakheṭa during the rule of Amoghavarsha I...
. Subsequently Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
's army had displaced a Chola commander, possibly from a part of Nolambavadi close to his own dominions. When King Satyasraya
Satyasraya
Satyasraya , also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was the king of the revived Western Chalukyas. Towards the end of his rule with the great Chola Rajaraja Chola I and had to face disastrous consequences of entering into a war with the Cholas which greatly endangered his own survival as well as...
succeeded Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
to the throne, the Cholas under Raja Raja Chola I had made further expansion to their territories and had also established themselves at the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
through marital and political ties. The Eastern Chalukya king Saktivarman had been installed by Raja Raja Chola I at Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
and he was a subordinate of the great Chola monarch who helped him. In retaliation Satyasraya
Satyasraya
Satyasraya , also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was the king of the revived Western Chalukyas. Towards the end of his rule with the great Chola Rajaraja Chola I and had to face disastrous consequences of entering into a war with the Cholas which greatly endangered his own survival as well as...
invaded Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
where in 1006 AD, his general Bayalanambi reduced the forts of Dhanyakataka (Dharanikota) and Yanamandala (Yanamadala) to ashes and established himself at Chebrolu in Guntur district. However, Satyasraya
Satyasraya
Satyasraya , also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was the king of the revived Western Chalukyas. Towards the end of his rule with the great Chola Rajaraja Chola I and had to face disastrous consequences of entering into a war with the Cholas which greatly endangered his own survival as well as...
was forced out of his capital in his war with Raja Raja Chola I's forces led by his son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
"marched up to Donur, he also captured Banvasi, a good part of the Raichur doab and sacked Manyakheta" itself, which was the Western Chalukyan capital. In the same war, he suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of "another section of the Chola army operating from Vengi advanced on Kulpak (Kollipakkai of Tamil inscriptions) 45 miles north-west of Hyderabad and captured its fortress. King Satyasraya
Satyasraya
Satyasraya , also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was the king of the revived Western Chalukyas. Towards the end of his rule with the great Chola Rajaraja Chola I and had to face disastrous consequences of entering into a war with the Cholas which greatly endangered his own survival as well as...
regained his kingdom with great difficulty, following withdrawal of the Chola forces to south of the Tungabhadra basin. Raja Raja Chola I, who presented the riches earned from this war to the Brihadeeswarar Temple
Brihadeeswarar temple
The Peruvudaiyar Koyil , also known as Rajarajeswaram, at Thanjavur in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world's first complete granite temple and a brilliant example of the major heights achieved by Cholas kingdom Vishwakarmas in Tamil architecture. It is a tribute and a reflection of the...
of Thanjavur.
During the rule of the Chalukya ruler Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II , also known by the titles Jagadekhamalla and Mallikamoda, succeeded his brother Vikramaditya V on the Western Chalukya throne. Jayasimha had to fight on many fronts to protect his kingdom...
, feuds with the Cholas under Rajendra Chola I continued, with the Chalukyas seeking to impose Vimaladitya-II as the king of Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
, capital of the Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 C.E. when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire...
while the Cholas wanting to install Rajaraja Narendra, son of Kundavai, sister of Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
. Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II , also known by the titles Jagadekhamalla and Mallikamoda, succeeded his brother Vikramaditya V on the Western Chalukya throne. Jayasimha had to fight on many fronts to protect his kingdom...
invaded and occupied the Chola-controlled Bellary and Gangavadi and Vimaladitya-II, seeking to occupy the Vengi throne occupied Bezwada (modern Vijayawada) creating difficulties for the Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra. Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
aided the Vengi Chalukyas by sending one part of his massive army to Raichur
Raichur
Raichur , is a city municipal council in Raichur district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Raichur, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, is the headquarters of Raichur district. It was in the princely state of Mysore during the rule of Tipu Sultan...
, then on the borders of Kannada and Telugu
Telugu people
The Telugu people or Telugu Prajalu are an ethnic group of India. They are the native speakers of the Telugu language, the most commonly spoken language in India after Hindi and Bengali...
countries, and another to Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
itself. Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II , also known by the titles Jagadekhamalla and Mallikamoda, succeeded his brother Vikramaditya V on the Western Chalukya throne. Jayasimha had to fight on many fronts to protect his kingdom...
was defeated at Maski
Maski
Maski is a village and an archaeological site in the Raichur district of the state of Karnataka, India. It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. The site came into prominence with the discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka by C. Beadon in 1915...
and the forces of his feudatories and the claimant to the Eastern Chalukya throne, Vijayaditya-II suffered several defeatsat the hands of the Cholas at Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
, which secured that country for Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra, before heading further north and conquering Kalinga
Kalinga
Kalinga is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Tabuk and borders Mountain Province to the south, Abra to the west, Isabela to the east, Cagayan to the northeast, and Apayao to the north...
, whose king also had sided with Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II , also known by the titles Jagadekhamalla and Mallikamoda, succeeded his brother Vikramaditya V on the Western Chalukya throne. Jayasimha had to fight on many fronts to protect his kingdom...
. However, Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II
Jayasimha II , also known by the titles Jagadekhamalla and Mallikamoda, succeeded his brother Vikramaditya V on the Western Chalukya throne. Jayasimha had to fight on many fronts to protect his kingdom...
was able to subdue the Paramara
Paramara
Paramara is a Maratha, Gurjar,& Rajput clan of India.The Paramara clan belongs to the Agnivansha of Rajputs ancient Kshatriyas...
of central India.
During the rule of Rajadhiraja Chola I (1042–1056), Dannada, Kulpak, Koppam, the fortress of Kampili, Pundur, Yetagiri and the Chalukyan capital Kalyani ruled by Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
were sacked. In 1053, Rajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II reigned as the Chola king succeeding his elder brother brother Rajadhiraja Chola. He is best remembered for his role in the battle of Koppam alongside his elder brother where he dramatically turned the tables on the Chalukyan King Somesvara I.- Koppam Battle :The Chola forces were...
after defeating the Chalukyans in war advanced to Kollapura where he erected a pillar of victory before returning to his capital at Gangaikondacholapuram. It is known from records that Jayasimha's son, Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in 1042 In 1066, the Western Chalukya ruler Somesvara's forces were defeated by the next Chola ruler Virarajendra, who then again defeated the Western Chalukyas at Kudalasangama
Kudalasangama
Kudalasangama in India is an important center of pilgrimage for people of the Lingayat faith. It is located about 15 km from the Almatti Dam in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. The Krishna river and Ghataprabha river merge here and flow east towards Srisaila in state of Andhra Pradesh...
, and set up a pillar of victory on the banks of the Tungabhadra. However, Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
's attempts to restore the power of the Chalukyas ended in failure. especially after getting defeated by the Cholas not less than 5 times and losing substantial territories. Thus, possessions of the Cholas in Kannada country largely remained intact during the period 990–1115 AD.
In a war at Koppal, Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
seemed to be winning when the Chola emperor Rajadhiraja Chola I, was killed on the battle-field, but Rajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II reigned as the Chola king succeeding his elder brother brother Rajadhiraja Chola. He is best remembered for his role in the battle of Koppam alongside his elder brother where he dramatically turned the tables on the Chalukyan King Somesvara I.- Koppam Battle :The Chola forces were...
took charge of the Chola forces which were on the verge of distantegration, re-mobilized them and despite their emperor having been killed, inflicted a crushing defeat on Somesvara I
Somesvara I
Somesvara I succeeded his father Jayasimha II as the Western Chalukya king. He was one of the greatest kings of the later Chalukya Dynasty. In spite of many reverses he managed to safeguard the integrity of the Chalukya kingdom. He founded the city of Kalyani, present day Basavakalyana and moved...
, who subsequently also lost to emperor Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
in four battles at Dannada, Visayavadai (modern Vijayawada), Kurnool
Kurnool
Kurnool is located at . It has an average elevation of 273 metres .Kurnool lies on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. The Handry and Neeva rivers also flow through the city. The K.C...
and finally at Kudalasangama
Kudalasangama
Kudalasangama in India is an important center of pilgrimage for people of the Lingayat faith. It is located about 15 km from the Almatti Dam in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. The Krishna river and Ghataprabha river merge here and flow east towards Srisaila in state of Andhra Pradesh...
.In 1068 Somesvara I, suffering from an incurable illness, drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River (Paramayoga). while some argue that the cause of suicide might be humiliation of defeats. Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south, Somesvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan
Konkan
The Konkan also called the Konkan Coast or Karavali is a rugged section of the western coastline of India from Raigad to Mangalore...
, Gujarat, Malwa and his rule.
Till the invasion by Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
of Chalukya country during the rule of Somesvara II
Somesvara II
Somesvara II who was administering the area around Gadag succeeded his father Somesvara I as the Western Chalukya king. He was the eldest son of Somesvara I. During his reign Somesvara II was constantly under threat from his more ambitious younger brother Vikramaditya VI...
, resulting initially in partition of the Chalukya kingdom with and subsequently installation of Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
in-charge of the southern areas of the Chalukyas bordering mainly the Gangavadi and Kongu territories of the Cholas four Chalukya kings suffered continuous and crushing defeats at the hands of their Chola adversaries. Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
, an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi
Mysore State
The Kingdom of Mysore was one of the three largest princely states within the erstwhile British Empire of India. Upon India gaining its independence in 1947, the Maharaja of Mysore merged his realm with the Union of India...
in the southern deccan when Somesvara II was the king. Married to a Chola princess (a daughter of Virarajendra Chola), Vikramaditya VI maintained a friendly alliance with them. After the death of the Chola king in 1070, Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
anxious of the ambitions of Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi, a son of the Eastern Chalukya monarch Rajaraja Narendra, proceeded to the Tamil kingdom and installed his brother-in-law, Adhirajendra
Athirajendra Chola
Athirajendra Chola reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his father Virarajendra Chola. His reign was marked by civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, in which he was killed...
, the son of Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
at Gangaikondacholapuram, but spent more time at Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram, or Kanchi, is a temple city and a municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district...
, where there was a rebellion, possibly in support of Rajendra Chalukya, a version supported by presence of his sandhi vigrahis at the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam. He returned after a period of one month, only to hear that Rajendra Chalukya had taken over as the Chola monarch with the title Kulottunga Chola I after the assassination of Athirajendra Chola
Athirajendra Chola
Athirajendra Chola reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his father Virarajendra Chola. His reign was marked by civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, in which he was killed...
. At the sametime Vikramaditya VI undermined his brother, Somesvara II, by winning the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories: the Hoysala, the Seuna and the Kadambas
Kadambas
The Kadamba Dynasty was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they...
of Hangal. Anticipating a civil war, Somesvara II sought help from Vikramaditya VI's enemies, Kulothunga Chola I and the Banavasi Kadambas of Revatidwipa/Goa
Goa
Goa , a former Portuguese colony, is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its...
. In the ensuing conflict of 1076, after losing to Kulottunga Chola I who made himself the master of Gangavadi, Vikramaditya VI finally emerged victorious, imprisoned his brother Somesvara II
Somesvara II
Somesvara II who was administering the area around Gadag succeeded his father Somesvara I as the Western Chalukya king. He was the eldest son of Somesvara I. During his reign Somesvara II was constantly under threat from his more ambitious younger brother Vikramaditya VI...
and proclaimed himself king of the Chalukya empire.
The fifty year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north and south, he successfully tackled the imperial Cholas and regained Vengi in 1118 AD when their emperor Kulottunga Chola I was in his death bed, and also retained Vengi for a few years This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds). Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
however, was quickly regained by the Cholas after the demise of emperor Kulottunga Chola I and the accession to the Chola throne by his son and successor Vikrama Chola
Vikrama Chola
Kōpparakēsarivarman Vikrama Chola was a 12th century king of the Chola empire. He succeeded his father Kulothunga Chola I to the throne in 1120 C.E. A insscription of his from Sidlaghatta in Karnataka mentions the Saka date 1042...
who defeated the successor of Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
, Somesvara III
Somesvara III
Somesvara III was a Western Chalukya king and son of Vikramaditya VI and Queen Chandaladevi. A king more inclined towards literature, Someshvara III had to face the invasion of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana but was able to suppress him...
The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance. Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far away Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range...
, eulogised the king in his well known work Vikramankadeva Charita. Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion.
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted the empire, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel. In the decades after Vikramaditya VI's death in 1126, the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command. The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other. By the time of Jagadhekamalla II
Jagadhekamalla II
Jagadhekamalla II followed Somesvara III to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the slow decline of the Chalukya empire with the loss of Vengi entirely, though he was still able to control the Hoysalas in the south and the Seuna and Paramara in the north...
, the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor, Tailapa III
Tailapa III
Tailapa III succeeded Jagadhekamalla II to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the beginning of the end of the Chalukya empire. Kakatiya dynasty Prolla II warred with him, defeated and took the Chalukya king captive. This resulted in other feudatories rising against the Chalukyas. The Seuna...
, was defeated by Kakatiya Prola in 1149. Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas. Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule, the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire. In any case, in the internecine wars among the small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas or Kalachuris, the Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms steadily increasing their stock and ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Kalachuris and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sending them into oblivion. With the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years followed around AD 1149, after the defeat of Tailapa III
Tailapa III
Tailapa III succeeded Jagadhekamalla II to the Western Chalukya throne. His rule saw the beginning of the end of the Chalukya empire. Kakatiya dynasty Prolla II warred with him, defeated and took the Chalukya king captive. This resulted in other feudatories rising against the Chalukyas. The Seuna...
by the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana
Vishnuvardhana
Vishnuvardhana was an emperor of the Hoysala Empire in present day Indian state of Karnataka. Vishnuvardhana took the first step in consolidating the Hoysala Empire in South India through a series of battles against his overlords, the Western Chalukya empire...
where he based himself with his son Narasimha I
Narasimha I
Narasimha I was a ruler of the Hoysala Empire. Apart from his victory over his overlord Chalukya Tailapa III which paved way for declaration of independence by his successor, his importance to historians is considered little....
in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve, mainly due to incompetency of its rulers after 1120 AD. Hoysala Narasimha I
Narasimha I
Narasimha I was a ruler of the Hoysala Empire. Apart from his victory over his overlord Chalukya Tailapa III which paved way for declaration of independence by his successor, his importance to historians is considered little....
defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region. In 1157 the Kalachuri
Kalachuri
Kalachuri Empire is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India and were called Chedi or Haihaya and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka...
s under Bijjala II
Bijjala II
Bijjala II 1130 - 1167 CE was the most famous of the southern Kalachuri kings and ruled initially as a feudatory of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. He ruled as the Mahamandalesvara or chief and ruled over Karhada 4,000 and Tardavadi 1,000, designations given to...
captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district
Dharwad District
Dharwad District is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India. Dharwad is the cultural headquarters of North Karnataka....
.
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras. Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (Mahamandaleshwar) over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas. However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion, Somesvara IV
Somesvara IV
Somesvara IV was the last king of the Western Chalukya empire. He made a brief attempt to revive the Chalukya kingdom by defeating the waning Kalachuri kingdom. He managed to capture Basavakalyana but failed to prevent the other feudatories, the Seuna, Hoysala and the Kakatiya dynasty from...
made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani. Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict. During this time, Hoysala Veera Ballala II
Veera Ballala II
Veera Ballala II was the greatest monarch of the Hoysala Empire. This is proven by his successes against the Seuna, Southern Kalachuri, and the waning Kalyani Chalukya dynasties. He caused the demise of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. His period also saw prolific literary activity in Kannada. He...
was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Somesvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris. The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189.
The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III
Kulothunga Chola III
Kulothunga Chola III was the ruler of the Chola empire from 1178 to 1218 AD, after succeeding Rajadhiraja Chola II. Kulothunga Chola III gained success in war against his traditional foes. He gained victories in war against the Pandyas of Madurai, Cheras of Venad, Hoysalas of Mysore, the Sinhala...
even collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II
Veera Ballala II
Veera Ballala II was the greatest monarch of the Hoysala Empire. This is proven by his successes against the Seuna, Southern Kalachuri, and the waning Kalyani Chalukya dynasties. He caused the demise of the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. His period also saw prolific literary activity in Kannada. He...
, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and sounded the death-knell of the Western Chalukyas
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical...
in a series of wars with Somesvara IV
Somesvara IV
Somesvara IV was the last king of the Western Chalukya empire. He made a brief attempt to revive the Chalukya kingdom by defeating the waning Kalachuri kingdom. He managed to capture Basavakalyana but failed to prevent the other feudatories, the Seuna, Hoysala and the Kakatiya dynasty from...
between 1185–1190 AD, the last Chalukya king whose territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. In contrast, the Cholas would be stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the equally great Pandiyan
Pandiyan
Pandiyan may refer to:*Any of the kings of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ruled South India from pre-historic times until end of the 15th century*Pandiyan - Tamil actor...
empire and ceasing to exist by 1280 AD.
The overall effort by Somesvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Somesvara IV into exile in Banavasi
Banavasi
Banavasi is an ancient temple town in Uttara Kannada District bordering Shivamogga district in the South Indian state of Karnataka .-History:Banavasi is one of the oldest towns in the Karnataka state...
1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time.
Administration
Alupas
The Alupas kings were a minor dynasty who ruled parts of coastal Karnataka. Later with the dominance of Kadambas in Banavasi, they became feudatory to them. With the changing political scenario, soon they became the feudatories to Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Rayas...
, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor. Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief minister), Sandhivigrahika, and Dharmadhikari (chief justice). Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.
The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi-12000, Nolambavadi-32000, Gangavadi-96000, each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as in Belavola-300. The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas (groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village). A Mandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official. Tailapa II
Tailapa II
Tailapa II had titles Nurmadi Taliapa and Satyashraya Kulatilaka. He re-established the Western Chalukya dynasty after a period of 220 years during which time they had been in eclipse. The revived Chalukya kingdom rose to its height of power under Vikramaditya VI. The revived dynasty came to be...
himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta
The Rashtrakuta Empire was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and the 10th centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual clans. Rastrakutas in inscriptions represented as descendants of Satyaki, a Yadava well known...
rule. Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Somesvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas. Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda.
The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold pagodas
Pagoda (coin)
Pagoda was a unit of currency, a coin made of gold or half gold minted by Indian dynasties as well as the British, the French and the Dutch. It was issued by various dynasties in medieval southern India, including the Kadambas of Hangal, the Kadambas of Goa, and the Vijaynagar Empire.There were two...
with Kannada and Nagari
Devanagari
Devanagari |deva]]" and "nāgarī" ), also called Nagari , is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal...
legends which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion, Sri in Kannada, a spearhead, the king's title, a lotus and others. Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya, Somesvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla, Somesvara II used Bhuvaneka malla, Lakshmideva's coin carried Sri Lasha, and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade. The Alupas, a feudatory, minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari
Devanagari
Devanagari |deva]]" and "nāgarī" ), also called Nagari , is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal...
legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya. Lakkundi
Lakkundi
Lakkundi in Gadag District of Karnataka is a tiny village on the way to Hampi from Hubli. Lakkundi 11 km from Gadag in the east...
in Gadag district
Gadag District
Gadag District had a population of 971,952 of which 35.21% was urban as of 2001. Population increased 13.14% in the decade 1991-2001. The District is bounded on the north by Bagalkot District, on the east by Koppal District, on the southeast by Bellary District, on the southwest by Haveri...
and Sudi in Dharwad district
Dharwad District
Dharwad District is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India. Dharwad is the cultural headquarters of North Karnataka....
were the main mints (Tankhashaley). Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighting 96 grains
Grain (measure)
A grain is a unit of measurement of mass that is nominally based upon the mass of a single seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat and barley grains were part of the legal definition of units of mass. However, there is no evidence of any country ever...
, Dramma weighted 65 grains, Kalanju 48 grains, Kasu 15 grains, Manjadi 2.5 grains, Akkam 1.25 grains and Pana 9.6 grain.
Economy
Pulse (legume)
A pulse is an annual leguminous crop yielding from one to twelve seeds of variable size, shape, and color within a pod. Pulses are used for food and animal feed. The term "pulse", as used by the Food and Agricultural Organization , is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry seed...
, and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca
Areca
Areca is a genus of about 50 species of single-stemmed palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from Malaysia to the Solomon Islands. The generic name Areca is derived from a name used locally on the Malabar Coast of India....
and betel
Betel
The Betel is the leaf of a vine belonging to the Piperaceae family, which includes pepper and Kava. It is valued both as a mild stimulant and for its medicinal properties...
being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines. Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates.
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas
Gowda
Gowda is usually the title given to the head of the family or family group in the state of Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh in India. It is similar to Gounder or Kaoundar of Tamilnadu. It not the name of a caste, but title given to the leader or elder from any caste...
. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu
Prabhu
Prabhu means master or the supreme lord in Sanskrit and many of the Indian languages; it is a name sometimes applied to God.The term is also used by male devotees of the hindu deity Lord Krishna/Vishnu as a title and form of address. If a man sees another male devotee whom he does not know, he will...
Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century.
Religion
Mysore State
The Kingdom of Mysore was one of the three largest princely states within the erstwhile British Empire of India. Upon India gaining its independence in 1947, the Maharaja of Mysore merged his realm with the Union of India...
, was a setback to Jainism
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
. The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu, or his associated Avatars such as Rama and Krishna, as the original and supreme God....
in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant. Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged, Shravanabelagola
Shravanabelagola
Shravana Belgola is a city located in the Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is 158 km from Bangalore. The statue of Gommateshvara Bahubali at Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa is one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Jainism, one that reached a peak in architectural and sculptural...
and Kambadahalli
Kambadahalli
Kambadahalli is a village in Mandya district of Karnataka state, in southwestern India. Previously known as Kambapuri, it is one of the oldest and most important Jain religious centers in Karnataka. The monuments here were built by the Western Ganga Dynasty in the 9th - 10th century...
. The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (IAST: pronounced , (Sanskrit: , ) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as ' and ' was an Indian philosopher from Kalady of present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta...
's Advaita philosophy. The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal
Dambal
Dambal is a village in the Gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. It was an ancient center of Buddhism and remained so as late as the 12th century.Dambal is at an elevation of 590 metres and its population is 21,096.-History:...
and Balligavi
Balligavi
Balligavi a town in Shikaripura taluk Shimoga district of Karnataka state, India, is today known as Belagami or Balagame. Its ancient names are Dakshina Kedara,Valliggame and Valligrame. Dakshina Kedara means Kedarnath of the South. A place of antiquity, it is known for its ancient monuments...
. There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the twelfth century. Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system. In his Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote "work is worship" (Kayakave Kailasa). Also known as the Lingayats (worshipers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women. This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood. Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam
Srirangam
Srirangam , Old name is Vellithirumutha gramam and Tamil name is Thiruvarangam , is an island and a part of the city of Tiruchirapalli , in South India....
, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
). He later wrote Sribhashya, a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara. Ramanujacharya's stay in Melkote
Melkote
Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one of the sacred places in Karnataka. The place is also known as Thirunarayanapuram. It is built on rocky hills, known as Yadavagiri or Yadugiri, overlooking the Cauvery valley. Melukote is about 51 km from...
resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana
Vishnuvardhana
Vishnuvardhana was an emperor of the Hoysala Empire in present day Indian state of Karnataka. Vishnuvardhana took the first step in consolidating the Hoysala Empire in South India through a series of battles against his overlords, the Western Chalukya empire...
converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries. Akka Mahadevi
Akka Mahadevi
Akka Mahadevi was a prominent figure of the Veerashaiva Bhakti movement of the 12th century Karnataka. Her Vachanas in Kannada, a form of didactic poetry are considered her greatest contribution to Kannada Bhakti literature. In all she wrote about 430 Vachanas which is relatively fewer than that...
, Allama Prabhu
Allama Prabhu
Allama Prabhu is a mystic-saint and Vachana poet of the Kannada language in the 12th century. Prabhu is the patron saint , the undisputed spiritual authority, and an integral part of the Lingayata movement that decisively shaped society in medieval Karnataka and...
, and a host of Basavanna's followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva. The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court, Harihara
Harihara (poet)
Harihara was a noted Kannada poet and writer in the 12th century. A native of Halebidu in modern Hassan district, he came from a family of accountants and initially served in that capacity in the court of Hoysala King Narasimha I . Later, he moved to Hampi and authored many classics...
and Raghavanka
Raghavanka
Raghavanka was a noted Kannada writer and a poet in the Hoysala court which flourished in the late 12th to early 13th century. Raghavanka is credited for popularising the use of the native shatpadi metre in Kannada literature...
, were Virashaivas. This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.
Society
Kalachuri
Kalachuri Empire is this the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India and were called Chedi or Haihaya and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of Karnataka...
queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
movement is well known. Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals. Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati
Sati (practice)
For other uses, see Sati .Satī was a religious funeral practice among some Indian communities in which a recently widowed woman either voluntarily or by use of force and coercion would have immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre...
(a custom in which a dead man's widow used to immolate
Self-immolation
Self-immolation refers to setting oneself on fire, often as a form of protest or for the purposes of martyrdom or suicide. It has centuries-long traditions in some cultures, while in modern times it has become a type of radical political protest...
herself on her husband’s funeral pyre
Pyre
A pyre , also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite...
) though present was on a voluntary basis. Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
who preferred to fast to death (Sallekhana), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse.
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present, Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
s enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar. People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time. In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha
Matha
A matha ) is a term for monastic and similar religious establishments of Hinduism and Jainism. A matha is usually more formal, hierarchical, and rule-based than an ashram.-Advaita Mathas:...
, Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara
Vihara
Vihara is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season....
. These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (Saraswati Bhandara). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen. The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki), subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthasastra.
Literature
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
writers were on the epics, Ramayana
Ramayana
The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon , considered to be itihāsa. The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata...
, Mahabharata
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
, Bhagavata
Bhagavata
Bhagavata signifies in the context of Hinduism. In this context bhakti has the primary meaning of 'adoration', while Bhagavat means 'the Adorable One', and Bhagavata is a worshiper of the Adorable One...
, Puranas
Puranas
The Puranas are a genre of important Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.Puranas...
and Vedas
Vedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time. The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II also lived in the Western Chalukya Empire.
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna
Ranna
Ranna was one of the earliest poets of Kannada language.Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called "three gems of Kannada literature".-Early days:Ranna was born on 949 C.E. in Muduvolalu Bagalkot district, Karnataka....
, grammarian Nagavarma II
Nagavarma II
Nagavarma II was a Kannada language scholar and grammarian of the 11th or 12th century Western Chalukya court centred in Basavakalyan, modern Karnataka state, India. He was the earliest among the three most notable and authoritative grammarians of Old-Kannada language...
and Basava
Basava
Basava was a philosopher and a social reformer. He is also called Vishwa Guru and Bhakti-Bhandari. His teachings and preachings which are universal, go beyond all boundaries of belief systems...
. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyasraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature". He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyasraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima
Bhima
In the Mahābhārata, Bhima is one of the central characters of Mahabharata and the second of the Pandava brothers...
and Duryodhana
Duryodhana
In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari, the eldest of the one hundred Kaurava brothers, Emperor of the world at that time which means Emperor of India or Bharatvarsha as it was known at that time, cousin and the chief...
using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war
Kurukshetra war
According to the Indian epic poem Mahābhārata, a dynastic succession struggle between two groups of cousins of an Indo-Aryan kingdom called Kuru, the Kauravas and Pandavas, for the throne of Hastinapura resulted in the Kurukshetra War in which a number of ancient kingdoms participated as allies of...
. He wrote Ajitha purana
Ajitha purana
The Ajitha Purana written by Ranna in 993 AD narrates the story of Ajithanatha, the second Tirthankara of Jainism. This is the shortest Jinapurana in Kannada...
in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects. His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are the best known among them.
In Sanskrit, a well known poem (Mahakavya
Mahakavya
Mahākāvya , also known as sargabandha, is a genre of Indian epic poetry in classical Sanskrit literature. The genre is characterised by ornate and elaborate descriptions of scenery, love, battles and so on — in short, everything that tests a poet's skill at description...
) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana
Bilhana
Bilhana Kavi was an 11th-century Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the Caurapâñcâśikâ.According to legend, the Brahman Bilhana fell in love with the daughter of King Madanabhirama, Princess Yaminipurnatilaka, and had a secretive love affair. They were discovered, and Bilhana was thrown...
recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Somesvara II.
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Somesvara III
Somesvara III
Somesvara III was a Western Chalukya king and son of Vikramaditya VI and Queen Chandaladevi. A king more inclined towards literature, Someshvara III had to face the invasion of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana but was able to suppress him...
(1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc. While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time.
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara
Vijnaneshwara
Vijnaneshwara was a prominent jurist of twelfth century India. His treatise, the Mitakshara, dealt with inheritance, and is one of the most influential legal treatises in Hindu law....
became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara
Mitakshara
The ' is a on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best known for its theory of "inheritance by birth." It was written by Vijñāneśvara, a scholar in the Western Chalukya court in the late eleventh and early twelfth century. Along with the Dāyabhāga, it was considered one of the main authorities on Hindu Law...
, in the court of Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India. An Englishman
Englishman
Englishman may refer to:*English people*Grey Partridge*Jason Englishman, Canadian rock music singer and guitarist*Jenny-Bea Englishman, real name of the Canadien singer Esthero*Erald Briscoe, reggae musician who records under the name Englishman...
Colebrooke later translated into English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system. Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara.
Architecture
Badami Chalukya Architecture
The Badami Chalukya architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the time period of 5th – 8th centuries AD. in the area of Malaprabha basin, in present day Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. This style is sometimes called the Vesara style and Chalukya style...
of the eighth century and the Hoysala architecture
Hoysala architecture
Hoysala architecture is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region...
popularised in the thirteenth century. The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab
Doab
A Doab is a term used in India and Pakistan for a "tongue" or tract of land lying between two confluent rivers...
region of present day Gadag district
Gadag District
Gadag District had a population of 971,952 of which 35.21% was urban as of 2001. Population increased 13.14% in the decade 1991-2001. The District is bounded on the north by Bagalkot District, on the east by Koppal District, on the southeast by Bellary District, on the southwest by Haveri...
in Karnataka. The dynasty's temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present day central Karnataka. Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
Dambal
Dambal is a village in the Gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. It was an ancient center of Buddhism and remained so as late as the 12th century.Dambal is at an elevation of 590 metres and its population is 21,096.-History:...
(Gadag district), the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatii (Davangere district), the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali (Davangere district), the Siddhesvara Temple
Siddhesvara Temple
The Siddhesvara Temple is located in the town of Haveri in Haveri district, Karnataka state, India. It is considered an ornate example of 12th century Western Chalukyan art and is well-known for the many loose sculptures of Hindu deities that exist in it, and is the finest testimonial for...
at Haveri
Haveri
Haveriis a town in Karnataka. It is the administrative headquarters of Haveri District. The name Haveri is derived from the Kannada words havu and keri, which means place of snakes. Haveri is famous for its cardamom garlands. It is said that Haveri had around 1000 maths in ancient days. One of...
(Haveri district
Haveri District
Haveri is a district in the state of Karnataka, India with the potential to become a tourist hub. As of 2001, it had a population of 1,439,116 of which 20.78% were urban residents.-Tourism:Examples of tourist attractions in the district:...
), the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district
Dharwad District
Dharwad District is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India. Dharwad is the cultural headquarters of North Karnataka....
) and the Mahadeva Temple
Mahadeva Temple (Itagi)
Itagi is in Yalburga Taluk, Koppal District, in North Karnataka, Karnataka, India. It is about 7 km from Kuknur. It is near to Lakkundi about 20 km.Itagi is famous for the Chalukya style Mahadeva Temple...
at Itagi (Koppal district
Koppal district
Koppal district is an administrative district in the state of Karnataka in India. In the past Koppal was referred to as 'Kopana Nagara'. Hampi, a World heritage center, covers some areas of Koppal District. It is situated approximately 38 km away...
) are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects. The twelfth century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it "Emperor of Temples" (devalaya chakravarti) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI. The Kedareswara Temple (1060) at Balligavi
Balligavi
Balligavi a town in Shikaripura taluk Shimoga district of Karnataka state, India, is today known as Belagami or Balagame. Its ancient names are Dakshina Kedara,Valliggame and Valligrame. Dakshina Kedara means Kedarnath of the South. A place of antiquity, it is known for its ancient monuments...
is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style. The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami
Badami
Badami , formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from 540 to 757 AD. It is famous for rock cut and other structural temples...
and Aihole
Aihole
Aihole is a temple complex in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It is a very popular tourist spot in north Karnataka. It lies to the east of Pattadakal, along the Malaprabha River, while Badami is to the west of both....
during their early phase of temple building activity, such as Mallikarjuna Temple, the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples.
Lathe
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.Lathes are used in woodturning,...
turned (tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone
Soapstone
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock, a talc-schist. It is largely composed of the mineral talc and is thus rich in magnesium. It is produced by dynamothermal metamorphism and metasomatism, which occurs in the areas where tectonic plates are subducted, changing rocks by heat and pressure, with influx...
(Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorative Kirthimukha
Kirthimukha
Kirtimukha is the name of a swallowing fierce monster face with huge fangs, and gaping mouth, quite common in the iconography of Indian and Southeast Asian temple architecture...
(demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi. The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India. They consist primarily of pyramid shaped temples called Koils which are dependent on intricate carved stone in order to create a step design consisting...
. This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida, one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture.
Language
Lingayatism
Lingayatism, also known as Veerashaivism, is a distinct Shaivite denomination in India. It makes several departures from mainstream Hinduism and propounds monotheism through worship centered on Lord Shiva. It also rejects the authority of the Vedas and the caste system. The adherents of this faith...
) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas. At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written by Nagavarma I
Nagavarma I
Nagavarma I was a noted Jain writer and poet in the Kannada language in the late 10th century. His two important works, both of which are available are, Karnataka Kadambari, a champu based romance novel and an adaptation of Bana's Sanskrit Kadambari, and Chandombudhi Nagavarma I (c. 990) was...
, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna
Ranna
Ranna was one of the earliest poets of Kannada language.Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called "three gems of Kannada literature".-Early days:Ranna was born on 949 C.E. in Muduvolalu Bagalkot district, Karnataka....
(993), a book on medicine called Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II (1025).
See also
- Rashtrakutas
- Chola dynastyChola DynastyThe Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
- Vikramaditya VIVikramaditya VIVikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
- Kulothunga Chola IKulothunga Chola IKō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
- BalligaviBalligaviBalligavi a town in Shikaripura taluk Shimoga district of Karnataka state, India, is today known as Belagami or Balagame. Its ancient names are Dakshina Kedara,Valliggame and Valligrame. Dakshina Kedara means Kedarnath of the South. A place of antiquity, it is known for its ancient monuments...